Depression is a mental disorder that causes people to lose touch with reality (lliades). Some symptoms people feel include sad, anxious, worthless, empty, guilty, and angry (Kanter, Busch, Weeks, & Landes, 2008). Also, depression causes people to lose interest in activities they would do on a daily basis. Depression is especially common among college students due to an increase of responsibilities. This paper will look at two research studies that were conducted on people with depression. One of the studies is “A comparison of cognitive and behavioral inductions on negative mood” conducted by Weirzbicki, Westerholm & Mchugh (1994). The second study is “Dissociating effects of subclinical anxiety and depression on cognitive control” conducted by Ng, Chan, and Schlaghecken (2012). The purpose of this paper is to examine the two research studies and tell whether or not the outcome was what they expected for it to be, the different factors that play a part in depression among college students, the coping skills they use, the different types of depression, what areas in the brain are affected, and lastly, how men and women are affected similarly and differently.
Depression is a mental illness that should be taken serious. Mental illnesses are very prevalent among college students; a study conducted by Michael Kerr showed that one out of four students have a mental illness such as depression (Kerr, 2012). There are many factors that contribute to support this finding. The transition to starting college can bring a lot of stress and anxiety for a person. For example, some students have to move away from home. Students are in a new environment without the people that comfort them. When people are asked to step out of their comfort zone, it can provoke an anxious feeling. It has been shown that “44 percent of American college students report having symptoms of depression” (Kerr, 2012). However, most people that are victims of depression never seem to report it. “ 75 percent of college students do not seek help for mental health problems” (Kerr, 2012).
The study conducted by, Weirzbicki, Westerholm & Mchugh (1994), the researchers hypothesized that the cognitive and behavioral mood inductions would be equally powerful. In this study the independent variable is the control group and the dependent variable is the mood. The study was conducted at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It included 60 undergraduate participants that were exposed to one of three depressive mood induction groups. The three groups were the cognitive, behavioral, and control. The participants in the cognitive induction group read negative self-statements that were consistent with Beck’s cognitive theory of depression. Beck’s theory of depression is also known as beck’s cognitive triad, it starts with negative views about the world, followed by negative views about the future, then negative views about oneself. “The subjects that were in the behavioral mood induction group were exposed to insoluble discrimination problems consistent with Lewinsohn’s behavior theory” (Weirzbicki, Westerholm & Mchugh, 1994). In Peter Lewinsohn’s theory of depression, he argued that depression is caused by a combination of stressors in a person’s environment and lack of personal skills. Lastly, the participants in the control group read a neutral passage. The behavioral mood induction group had a set of insoluble discrimination problems. “They had one sample problem, in a 5 card series, each with two stimulus patterns, each of the patterns contained five dichotomous dimensions” (Weirzbicki, Westerholm & Mchugh, 1994). Those five dimensions were a letter (x or y), a color (red or blue), a size (large or small), a border (square or circle), and a borderline (solid or dashed). Later, the participants were told that for each of the five dimensions, each pattern contained only one value. Also, that one of the ten values was the target value. The participants were then asked to guess which of the two patterns on each card had the target value. They had a 10 second time frame to see if they could guess correctly. After they guessed, they were told if they were right or wrong. The next step was the debriefing process; the subjects were given a chance to ask any questions they had in mind. After debriefing, the participants were then given another sample problem. In this study, they created two slightly different forms of the sample problem. After the participants read the sample problem they were asked again to identify the target value. Regardless of their response they were told that they were incorrect. “This resulted in being that insoluble discrimination problems decrease ability to solve later problems” (Weirzbicki, Westerholm & Mchugh, 1994). However, their depressed moods increased. On the other hand, those that were in the cognitive mood induction group, had to read 59 depressing self-statements. Those statements included sentences such as “ today is neither better nor worse than any other day”. The participants were given the instructions on an index card, with each step printed on its own card. Lastly, those in the control group just read a passage on psychotherapy from an introductory psychology book. They were told that they wouldn’t be tested. They read for about 12 minutes since that’s how long the participants had to complete their task in the behavioral and cognitive mood induction groups. After the three groups completed their task, the participants were asked to rate their moods using the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist (MAACL). The checklist consists of 132 adjectives that ask participants how they currently feel. “The MAACL provides measures of depression, anxiety, and negative mood” (Weirzbicki, Westerholm & Mchugh, 1994). Following the debriefing, “those that were exposed to mood induction groups were exposed to an elating mood induction” (Weirzbicki, Westerholm & Mchugh, 1994). This consisted of reading 30 positive self-statements. The statements serve the purpose to eliminate any remaining effects of depressive mood inductions. Overall, the results from this study were that the two procedures did not differ in hardness but both produced more negative moods than control condition. With that being said, their hypothesis was confirmed, cognitive and behavioral mood inductions would be equally powerful.
The second study conducted by Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken (2012) they wanted to see if anxiety and depression are associated with impaired cognitive control. In this study “they used a non-affective hybrid masked prime-Simon task, they obtained several measures of within-and-between-trial inhibitory behavioral control in 83 young, healthy volunteers, together with measures of their anxiety and depression levels” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). They hypothesized that “subclinical levels of anxiety and depression impair inhibitory control of response to affectively neutral visual stimuli” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). There were 83 participants, 37 male and 46 female. All but six of the participants were right handed. “In this task, participants have to give a spatially corresponding manual response to the direction of an arrow stimulus (e.g., left-hand response to a left-pointing arrow)” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). “Each target was presented at a (task-irrelevant) left or right-hand screen location, and was followed by a (task-irrelevant) centrally presented, backward-masked arrow prime” (Ng, Chan, & Schlaghecken, 2012). There were four outcomes, which included: prime-compatible, prime-incompatible, location congruent, and location incongruent. The prime-compatible trials meant that the prime and the target were associated with the same response. Prime-incompatible meant that the prime and the target were associated with opposite response. Location congruent meant the response hand and the target location matched. For example, left arrow, left hand response, and left side of the screen. On the other hand, location incongruent meant that the response hand and the target location didn’t match. For instance, left arrow, left hand response, but right side of the screen. In this study they used the Simon effect, which represents measure of the strength of inhibitory control. “The participants were asked to sit in a dimly lit room, approximately 60 cm in front of a computer screen” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). Their first task was to complete the hybrid mask prime-Simon task. In this study, left and right hand arrows served as prime and target stimuli. Masks were constructed using horizontal, vertical, and oblique lines of different lengths. None of the masked lines had the same orientation of the lines that were making up the arrow stimuli. In addition, a new mask was created on each trial to avoid perceptual learning of the mask that was already presented to them. The response keys were the left and the right shift keys. They had the prime that was presented to them for 33ms, then a mask for 100ms, followed by a blank screen that was shown on the computer for 50ms, then the target was presented for another 100ms. The participants were asked to answer as quickly and accurately as possible to the direction of each target arrow. When the task was completed, they were asked to complete the Zung self-rating depression scale (ZSDS) and the Zung self-rating anxiety scale (ZSAS). Both of these scales consist of 20 item, self-report, questionnaire. “The ZSDS measures cognitive mood and somatic symptoms of depression” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). On the other hand, “the ZSAS measures anxiety disorder symptoms, feelings of anxiousness, feelings of panic, vestibular sensations, muscular sensations, and somatic control” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). The lowest score that could be received on these scales was a 20 and the highest an 80. However, when they calculated the mean of those two numbers, whoever produced the same score as the mean, was excluded from the study. The results of their study confirmed their hypothesis; anxiety and depression scores were highly correlated. The scores on the anxiety scale were lower than the scores on the depression scale. Out of the 80 participants, “35 scored below and 38 scored above the median anxiety score” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). However, on the depression scale, “39 scored below and 35 scored above the median score” (Ng, Chan & Schlaghecken, 2012). There are other factors that are affected by depression as well, such as areas in the brain.
Depression affects many parts of the brain and body however the three parts that I focused are the hippocampus, amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex. “The hippocampus is located near the center of the brain. It stores memories and regulates the production of a hormone called cortisol. The body releases cortisol during times of physical and mental stress, including during times of depression” (Cirino, 2016). When the hippocampus is exposed to high levels of cortisol, it slows down the production of new neurons and causes the neurons in the hippocampus to shrink (Cirino, 2016). When that occurs, it can lead to memory problems for the person. The prefrontal cortex is located in the front of the brain; it is responsible for emotions, decision-making, and forming memories. When cortisol is produced in great amounts, the prefrontal cortex seems to shrink (Cirino, 2016). “The amygdala is the part of the brain that facilitates emotional responses, such as pleasure and fear” (Cirino, 2016). The amygdala becomes bigger as it is exposed to higher levels of cortisol. When the amygdala is enlarged the individual is more prone to become hyperactive and that can cause disturbances in sleep patterns and daily activity. Also, it can cause the body to release irregular amount of hormones and chemicals in the body that that can result to further complications due to a disturbance in homeostasis (Cirino, 2016). As stated earlier, Aaron Beck’s theory of depression argues that depression is like a triangle. If one has negative views about the world, then they’ll have negative views about the future and that leads to negative views about oneself. Also, Peter Lewinsohn argued that depression is caused by a combination of stressors in a person’s environment and a lack of personal skills.
I agree with both theories, especially after looking over the two studies. Both studies were able to support the theories of depression and prove that depression has a lot to do with how a person deals with it. For instance, if a person lacks personal skill then they wont be able to overcome depression in comparison to a person who has good personal skills that could help them get through depression. Also, Becks theory of depression seems relevant, due to the fact that if a person has negative views about life, then they are very likely to think negatively about themselves as well.
College students have options as to which way works best for them to cope with their depression. When dealing with depression, men and women tend to use different coping strategies. Most men don’t reach out for help but they tend to follow through with their actions. For example, “And although women with depression are more likely to attempt suicide, men are more likely to die by suicide” (NIMH). What this means is that men are more likely of actually committing suicide where as women only attempt it but don’t succeed. Men do not reach out for help or even acknowledge the fact that they have depression. Along with the strategies, there are coping skills to help treat depression.
There are both negative and positive coping skills and there are several types of treatment. Even though there are ways to help treat depression, people still feel that their options are limited. One of the options is medication. An antidepressant is a drug used to help treat major depressive disorder. These antidepressants are used to adjust the neurotransmitters in the brain. Even though antidepressants are an option to help treat depression, many people chose not to take them because of all the side effects. For example, one common side effect is an increased possibility of thoughts of suicide. The American foundation for suicide prevention found that “over 50 percent of all people who die by suicide suffer from major depression.” With that being said, most people are afraid to take antidepressants because they feel like their chances of wanting to hurt themselves will increase. Another form of treatment is therapy. There are different types of therapy to treat depression such as psychoanalysis and counseling. Psychoanalysis is the primary form of therapy. Sigmund Freud was the founder of this therapy. “Psychoanalysis probes the patient’s psyche and brings unconscious impulses and behavior patterns to the surface” (health.com). Counseling is also very common. People can choose from individual counselor meetings or group sessions. Some of the recommended coping skills include; exercise, reading, hikes, vacation, and yoga. It has also been shown that writing in a journal can help some people. It helps them express themselves if they don’t feel comfortable taking to others about their problems. Another strategy is reading self-help books so that they can get a sense of how to make their situation better. This also reassures the person that they are not the only ones going through depression. People can also locate groups such as the National Alliance on Mental Illness. These type of groups offer education on depression, counseling, and other resources that will benefit the person. Another suggestion is to avoid being isolated. Therefore they are advised to participate in social activities and meet up with family and friends regularly. Turning to their support system will help them connect with others, who possibly face the same problem, and reassure them that they are not alone. It has also been shown that if people learn how to manage their time, it can help reduce their depression. For instance, if they can plan their day, make a list of daily tasks, and stay organized. Lastly, a person who is depressed should not make important decisions when they are feeling sad or down. They might not be able to think clearly and could make a decision they will regret later. Just like there are ways to cope and help treat depression there are also ways on how to prevent it.
It is advised that people should take steps to control their stress, reach out to family and friends, get treatment at the earliest sign of depression, and consider getting long term treatment. Long-term treatment can help the patient out by preventing a relapse of the symptoms. Also, it is important for people to pay attention to the warning signs so that they can control the problem before it escalates. One main factor in this issue is that people who face depression can either pick up positive coping skills or negative coping skills. Some of the positive coping skills are exercising, reading, yoga, writing, and drawing. These activities help people with depression be more resilient and stress tolerant (Flannery, 2014). Stress plays a big part when it comes to depression. Most people that are depressed have numerous issues that stress them and make their condition worse. Minimizing stress as much as possible is a good idea when depressed and it is advised to try and block out any unnecessary stressors. More people are affected by this disorder than thought of. “It is estimated that twenty percent of adults will require treatment for a mood disorder during their lifetime and approximately eight percent will have major depressive disorder” (Renaud, 2014). There were two case studies that I took in consideration, treatment recommended for the two case studies who had major depressive disorder, included problem solving therapy and interpersonal therapy (Larzelere, james, arcuri, 2015). Problem solving therapy, also known as PST, is a form is psychotherapy and it consists of trying to help the patients coping skills. PST tries to enhance the way they handle life’s upsetting experiences and teaches the patient strategies on how to use a step-by-step process on how to solve life problems. In problem solving therapy, the therapist assists the patient in identifying their problems, providing realistic solutions for their problems, selecting the best possible solutions, developing and following through with an action plan. During these types of interventions, the patient will learn skills to help them deal with depression and participate in assignments that will get them to practice their coping skills. Short-term therapy (PST) usually lasts anywhere from eight to sixteen sessions. This type of therapy can be taken individually or in-group. Interpersonal therapy (IPT) is time limited and it encourages the participant to gain control of their mood and daily functions. IPT typically lasts from twelve to sixteen weeks. The purpose of IPT is to build a relationship between the ways people communicate and interact with others and their mental health as well. The issue is addressed by attending therapy to gain coping skills and if that doesn’t seem to be so effective then they are recommended to take medication. Despite the fact that the symptoms can be the same for people who have depression, men and women tend to handle it differently.
Research has shown that women are more likely to suffer from depression then men. According to the depression center of the University of Michigan “Depression impacts twice as many women as men”. On top of all the stress a woman has to deal with such as being a student and working, there are life stages that a woman goes through that causes her to suffer from depression. For example, the most common are during or after having a child, and during menopause. However most women in college are young enough to not experience menopause at the same time. Some of the symptoms that women face includes sleeping more than usual, eating more, weight gain, and sensitivity to rejection. Also, “ females are at greater risk of depression and anxiety disorders at earlier ages than males, and this may partly account for their preponderance in rates for adult depression” (Piccinelli & Wilkonson, 2000). This is because women are stereotypically more emotional than men so they have to deal with their emotions and the fact that they have a role overload they have to tend to. For instance, most women that are in college and have kids have to work so that they can provide for their family as well, assuming that they don’t have outside help. On the other hand, men are more reserved and don’t like to reach out for help. Some of the factors that correlate to men and depression are genes, hormones, and stress. For example, if their family has a history of depression, then they are more likely to get it as well. Also, hormones that control the emotions and mood can affect brain chemistry. Lastly, stress can trigger depression. However most of the time it’s a combination of all three factors, which include genes, hormones, and stress, which cause men to fall into depression.
Over all, Depression is a mental illness that should be taken serious. Not only does it affect every day life but it also affects areas in the brain. The hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex are the areas that depression affects most. Even though men and women tend to handle depression differently, there are coping strategies and treatment plans to help. Some of those methods include IPT, PST, and antidepressants. One thing that should be considered for future findings is the environmental factors along with social factors that a person with depression has to deal with.