Introduction
Gender and sexuality development is central to the development of all individuals. Therefore, a literature review will be provided in which the topic of gender and sexuality development will be defined. Various other literature regarding the topic will be highlighted as it will provide a point of reference to which a new programme will be established.
The following paper aims to utilise one the proposed activities from the Keep the Best, Change the Rest intervention programme as a foundation for the development of the new programme. The resultant intervention programme will focus on gender and sexuality development within a South African context. In conjunction with the Keep the Best, Change the Rest activity, the proposed intervention will have theoretical underpinnings in order to ensure the efficacy of the intervention.
A community will be identified in which the intervention can be implemented. The community will be adequately defined and areas in which the intervention can exact change will be noted. Once the community has been defined, the aims of the intervention will become more evident.
The objectives of the following paper, for the author, is thus the application and critical reflection of the use of developmental theory, the ability to adequately apply developmental theory to an intervention, the ability to evaluate and intervention within the scope of practice of a registered counsellor, demonstrate the knowledge and critically discuss conceptual issues regarding gender and sexuality development and the ability to develop innovative responses to issues about gender development and sexuality.
Literature review
2.1 Gender and sexuality
Gender and sexuality are two differing concepts, each defined by different notions however these to concepts are linked (Gupta, 2000). Both gender and sexuality are social constructs (Jenkins, 2013). Gender is the vast characteristics that distinguish between masculine and feminine and includes social roles and very specific to context (American Psychological Association, 2011). That is, notions of gender differ across time and culture. Sex on the other hand refers to the biological make-up of the individual and is fixed across time and culture. Gender identity, according to Steensma, Kreukels, de Vries and Cohen- Kettenis (2013) refers to the notions of what to means to be male and female and the extent to which one perceives oneself to be similar to those of one gender. This comprises of other aspects such as masculinity and femininity.
According to Steensma et al., (2013), Ellis proposed that gender roles, which are the behaviours, attitudes and character traits ascribed to a people of a specific gender, were the “private manifestation of gender identity” and that gender identity was the public manifestation of gender roles (p. 289). Gender can be labelled by children from the age of 18 months to 24 months this is due to the increase in gender typed preferences such as certain toys being designed for boy and others for girls (Steensma et al., 2013).
Esplen (2007) states that while some view sexuality as biological drive, others view sexuality as being constructed from a social, historical and cultural stances based on constructions of power and more specifically power in relation to gender. According to the World Health Organisation (2006) sexuality is influenced by the interplay between various factors such as “biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, ethical, legal, historical, religious and spiritual” (p. 5)
According to Savin- Williams (1998) sexual identity refers to the long lasting identification of the meaning regarding one’s feelings, attractions and behaviours within a sexual context. One’s sexual identity often presents itself in the form of sexual orientation. Sexual orientation, as stated by the APA (2011) refers to the sex that an individual is sexually and romantically inclined towards. Sexual orientation comprised of various categories such as homosexual, heterosexual and bisexual. While these definitions might seem clear cut, current research hypothesises that there distinctions are not as defined as once previously thought.
According to Waterman (1982) in studies conducted, it was found that most advances in the development of an identity occur during college years. This is from late adolescence into early adulthood. That is, extensive advances in identity occur at this stage however, the foundations for identity development begins in adolescence
2.2 Theoretical viewpoint
Erikson proposed that there are various stages in which individuals need to resolve certain crises that arise (Buckler, 2005). The first five stages include trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt and industry versus inferiority, which occurs in childhood and adolescence. The final three stages include intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation and integrity versus despair which are components of adult development (Erikson, 1968).
Gender learning and sexuality begins developing during childhood and steadily progresses throughout the various stages (Kohlberg, 1966). Thus, in the trust versus mistrust stage, the child needs to resolve the stage in order to establish that the world is a place of safety and the people can be relied and depended (Schultz & Schultz, 2016). An important aspect regarding this stage is that issues of trust versus mistrust arise throughout the various other stages of development (Elkind, 1970). If trust develops, the person is better able to express their gender and sexuality without fear whether in childhood or in adolescence. In the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage, the development of freedom is important in the future functioning of the child in adolescence and adulthood (Schultz & Schultz, 2016). Therefore, if the stage is resolved and autonomy is established, the individual can feel free to express their gender and sexuality (Elkind, 1970). The individual would not doubt themselves in relation to the gender and sexuality with which they relate. Initiative versus guilt is the stage in which, children either experience initiative, which is the ability of the child to initiate activities, or guilt which is the feelings the child experiences when wanting to complete certain tasks (Elkind, 1970). This can influence the way in which a child experiences gender and sexuality. If the child is made to feel guilty in relation to gender specific activities fear and apprehension is created.
The above mentioned are the foundations laid for acceptance of the self and various part of the self. However, Erikson maintained that the identity versus role confusion stage is the stage in which adolescents begin to explore and experiment with different identities (Oswalt, 2010). Dunne (2008) maintains that gender identities are numerous, flexible and dynamic. This is done in order to establish the identity which they most relate with and accept as their own.
Gender and sexual development extensively advances during adulthood. Once gender identity and sexual identity have been securely established, various other factors can thus also play a role such as the relationship and lifestyle choices (Link, 2009).
2.3 Current research
According to Steensma et al., (2013) there is limited knowledge regarding the development of gender identity in adolescence within a South African context. Jolly (2003) and Lewis (2003) states that limited research has been conducted regarding sexuality in Africa and that concerns have rather been placed on sexual health, reproduction, sexual violence and diseases developed from sexual interactions. This evident in research conducted by Literature regarding sexuality is also limited due to the fact that there is a reluctance to explore as it might perpetuate “racist colonial stereotyping of African sexuality” (p. 16). Cornwall and Jolly (2006) addresses the neglect of sexuality in literature and state that sexuality is imperative to understand as it is central to a human being and that sexuality is controlled by various assumptions. Thus, it is important that people are aware of sexuality and are able to make their own informed decisions.
Few, but increasing, qualitative studies show more interest in understanding the notions of gender and the manner in which young African people construct themselves as being gendered and sexualised (Dunne, 2008). In a study conducted by Msibi and Rudwick, as stated in Milani (2015), links between language and gender had been made. It was subsequently found that linguistic processes not only serve to reinforce the notion of patriarchal dominance but those systems that inform gender related practices (Milani, 2015).
Jenkins (2013) maintains that during Apartheid race and sexuality were used as tools to control. Homosexuality was criminalised and was extremely stigmatised. Post- apartheid informed a new way of thinking and an increased tolerance towards others with a different sexual orientation was fostered. The Bill of Rights postulated that an individual has the right to freedom of expression and no one can violate this right (Posel, 2004).
Although same-sex relationships exist within an African context some still believe that being homosexual is not African. This is evident is the declarations of African presidents such as Robert Mugabe who outwardly express their disdain for homosexual individuals (Jenkins, 2013).
Bronfenbrenner, as stated by Gauvain and Cole (1994), proposes various systems on which community interacts. One of the systems proposed is the macrosystem. This system is concerned with policy that impact the way in which a community functions. Gender and sexuality development, according to Ilkkaracan and Jolly (2007), is important to policy as it can subsequently influence the various process of community action. Ilkkaracan and Jolly (2007) highlight that gender inequalities and prohibition sexual content of conversations can influence the spread of HIV/AIDS as well as the marginalisation and violence toward individuals with a different sexual orientation to that of a heterosexual relationship.
In research conducted, Bennett and Reddy (2007) found that, following the investigation of gender-based violence, issues regarding sexuality became evident. This has altered due to the policy and advocacy work done, the realisation that initiatives fail due to the inability to identify the way in which sexuality, and other factors, influence policy and the emerging idea of sexual citizenship (Bennett & Reddy, 2007).
It is important to note that policy and political notions regarding gender and sexuality can influence the period in which adolescent explore the various identities. Therefore, if policy regarding homosexuality is stringent then the individual might experience more internal conflict when trying to reconcile what society deems as correct and how they perceive their own development.
Definition of community
3.1 Community
The chosen community in which the activity will be implemented is the adolescent community. The adolescent community can be defined in terms of physical development, cognitive development, emotional development, psychosocial development and self-identity development.
The above adolescent community is situated in Westbury which is a lower middle class area. It is an area predominantly consisting of Coloured individuals. Post- Apartheid, Westbury allowed for the exploration of differing ways in which to be defined and differing ideologies to live by which subsequently developed a construction of a coloured identity which people could relate to or adopt (Dannhauser, 2006). Very limited resources are available to the community however there are small scale non-governmental organisations, non-profit organisations and community projects in the area. The allocation of resources to gender and sexuality development is non-existent as much of the focus is on drug addictions in youth. The community is rife with social problems such as drug and alcohol abuse and gangsterism especially in the adolescent community. Adolescents are highly influenced by peers thus struggle to develop a strong identity.
3.1.1 Physical development
Adolescence is a period in which the individual experiences various physical changes. Ruffin (2009) maintains that physical development includes rapid growth in terms of height and weight, the development of secondary characteristics and continuous brain development. As a result of these physical changes, adolescents sleep longer, may be more clumsy, adolescent girls may be more insecure regarding certain aspects of themselves particularly weight gain and concerns about their development in relation to their peers (Ruffin, 2009; Stang & Story, 2005).Some are positively received while others might be negatively received. This contributes to gender-stereotyped behaviours which reinforces societal notions of gender and sexuality. It is also important thus to note that as a substantial amount of adolescents in Westbury partake in substances, that this could affect their physical development in terms of brain composition and so forth.
3.1.2 Cognitive development
Adolescents develop better thinking in terms of cognitive development. Ruffin (2009) states that adolescents develop better reasoning skills, develop abstract thinking skills and develops metacognition. As a result, adolescents tend to have higher self-consciousness, experience ego centrism and exhibit personal fable. Stang and Story (2005) propose that adolescents gradually develop the ability to problem solve. Thus, the adolescents in Westbury will too have higher self-consciousness and be cognisant of peer opinions, thus, conflicting with the identity trying to develop. This gradually decreases the closer one gets to late adolescence.
3.1.3 Emotional development
According to Stang and Story (2005) adolescents emotionally adjust to their new body image and adapts to the development of their sexuality, they begin emotional separation from parents and they establish an identity separate from their parents. Larson and Brown (2007) maintain that adolescents have developed knowledge in relation to emotion and thus understand emotional words and phrases and understand the relationship between emotion and an event. Adolescents also understand that emotions are part of complex interrelated systems. For example, understanding emotions such as pride or shame within a specific cultural context.
3.1 4 Psychosocial development
In early adolescence the influence of peers during adolescence plays a pivotal role as it creates a heightened sense of awareness of physical appearance as well as social behaviours (Stang & Story, 2005).
Family and friends also contribute to the development of gender-stereotyped ideas and behaviours. This is achieved through the passing down of knowledge, from generation to generation, regarding the expectations of men and women regarding the role they play. During early adolescence, these notions of gender and sexuality are fixed ideas; as the individual moves through adolescence, these notions become more flexible (AlBuhairan, Areemit, Harrison & Kaufman, 2012).
3.1.5 Self-identity development
Adolescents develop their own moral and ethical values and they begin perceiving themselves in relation to their level of self-esteem and self-worth (Stang & Story, 2005). During late adolescence, peer influence decreases due to the development of a stronger self-identity (Stang & Story, 2005). According to Beyers and Seiffge-Krenke (2010) Erikson maintained that people who have developed a self-identity and an understanding of who they are, are able to enter the intimacy versus isolation stage with a mature mindset. Therefore, if one is able to know the self, gender and sexuality will not be issues of contention in early adulthood. Within the prosed community, the development of a self-identity
3.2 Proposed activity
The activity which the intervention will be based on is the Gender Boxes activity which was provided by International HIV/AIDS Alliance (2007). This activity requires the facilitator to draw two large squares on the ground spaced at a limited distance. Each box drawn represents a sex; one for women and one for men. The facilitator will explain that these are gender boxes. The facilitator will ask for a male volunteer and a female volunteer who will depict the ten characteristics or qualities of a man and a woman that is said to be ‘ideal’. It will be highlighted that the activity thus far had a focus on the ideal man and woman who are placed comfortably into the gender boxes. The participants should then be encouraged to suggest the various characteristics and qualities that the everyday woman and man have that might not be considered ideal. This is achieved through the participants shouting out the characteristics and qualities. The two volunteers will then be asked to remove themselves from the gender boxes and act out the characteristics and qualities. The facilitator will then ask the participants what they have learnt from seeing the participants place themselves within a gender role and removing themselves from the gender boxes. Important questions such as the benefits of remaining in a gender box and exhibiting the corresponding behaviour can be asked.
Intervention
As stated, the intervention will be aimed at adolescents within the community with a focus on self-identity specifically in relation to gender and sexuality development.
4.1 Appropriateness
The activity that the intervention will be based on is the Gender Boxes. This activity is appropriate for adolescents because it is during this period that issues regarding self-identity, sexuality, gender, and so forth are explored and established. The activity is thus aimed at making evident the understanding of teenagers and how their understanding might be based solely on the expectations of society. The activity will make apparent the gender and sexuality belief systems that teenagers hold and perhaps challenge their notions which will assist in the exploration of different identities. That is, teenagers might only explore the one identity deemed appropriate by society and not explore any other identities which, as Erikson postulated, is important in the development of a strong self-identity (Oswalt, 2010).
4.2 Theoretical application
The main theory which will be utilised, as the foundation for the intervention, is Erikson’s eight stages of man. In his theory, he suggested that each individual experience stages in which psychosocial development occurs. He also maintained that people establish basic ways in which they can orient themselves to the social world and that the development of personality is a continuous process throughout a person’s life (Schultz & Schultz, 2016).
Erikson proposed that in the stage of identity versus role confusion, it is important that the adolescent resolves the stage in order to achieve identity (Spano, 2004). Thus, if one can adequately identify their position with regards to gender and sexuality, resolution of the identity versus role confusion stage will be easier.
The activity can be explained within the theoretical framework of Erikson’s theory. The activity aims to allow the community to identify the characteristics of ideal men and women which can subsequently assist in the acknowledgement of aspects of the self. The identity versus role confusion stage in the stage in which the activity will be implemented. This stage is the stage in which the adolescent develop a new thinking regarding the world, they think about the way in which the might be thought about by others and they develop their own constructions of notions such as family, religion and society (Schultz & Schultz, 2016). Thus, the activity aims to address the notions that adolescents have with regards to factors such as religion, family and society. Through the identification of normed identities regarding gender and sexuality, the adolescent can thus decide whether those are notions they accept as their own or whether they would prefer to delve into other identities. The activity thus, creates awareness in relation to certain ideas which the individual can accept or reject.
As the activity states, the propose activity will be utilised within a group of community members and more specifically adolescents. The activity states that the group should identify ten features that the ideal man and women possess. A representative from both sexes will then be requested to depict the ten characteristics highlighted as being ideal features.
4.3 Evaluation
In order to ensure the efficacy of the activity and the new intervention, the author will evaluate the activity and provide ways in which the activity can be adapted to be used based on the community.
4.3.1 Strengths
The Gender Boxes activity is effective in that it provides participants a practical view of the characteristics and qualities that society deems perfect and the characteristics and qualities that real-life men and women possess. Through the activity, participant reflexivity, regarding gender and sexuality roles, can be fostered and that self-awareness can create a better understanding of the participants’ self and their gender and sexuality development. The activity is useful in that it allows the abstract idea of gender roles more concrete. Through this, men and women can explore gender roles and their accuracy in relation to their own lives.
4.3.2 Weaknesses
The weaknesses of the activity includes that it is aimed toward an older audience and clearly refers to older members of society. Another weakness of the activity is that it speaks to gender roles specific to men and women and not to men who identify as woman and women who identify as men.
4.3.3 Adaptation
Due to that fact that the activity is designed for an older participant group, the facilitator will adapt the activity by making it more interactive by inviting the entire group to act out the gender roles to ensure that the attention of the adolescents is retained and to ensure that all participants are actively involved in the process . As the activity does not account for a particular individual from a specific gender identifying with the opposite gender, the facilitator will encourage additional boxes that can account for other aspects of gender and sexuality development.
5. Ethical considerations
As the intervention is aimed at adolescents parental consent in required. Thus, the facilitator will need to provide informed consent documents for all the potential participants. The informed consent document will consist of confidentiality and the limitations thereof and as well as information regarding the intervention such as the topics, aims and who will be conducting the intervention.
Once the informed consent documents have been returned the intervention can commence (Bond, 2015). Throughout the intervention, the facilitator must ensure that they treat each participant fairly, that they are respectful of each individual and that they treat each participant with dignity. The intervention must benefit the participants in that they will gain knowledge which they can implement in their lives and the intervention must not harm the participants (Bond, 2015; Bosede, 2010).
As the intervention will be conducted within a community, it is important to ensure that community ethics and values are implemented throughout.
Conclusion
In summary, the literature regarding the development of gender and sexuality is very thin however; various other issues in relation to gender and sexuality have been specified. The community chosen was defined in terms of race and location as well as physical development, cognitive development, emotional development. psychosocial development and self-identity development. Erikson’s stages can be used to explain the way in which the activity can be utilised for adolescents. The activity was evaluated; the strengths and weaknesses have been identified and the activity has been adapted in order to suit the community. As the Gender Boxes activity will implemented, it is important to ensure that the various ethics have been considered such as informed consent.
Reference list
AlBuhairan, F., Areemit, R., Harrison, A., & Kaufman, M. (2012). Adolescent psychosocial development and evaluation: Global perspectives. In O. Ozdemir (Ed.). Complementary Paediatrics. Doi:10.5772/33907.
American Psychological Association. (2011). Definition of terms: sex, gender, gender identity and sexual orientation. The guideline for psychological practice with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/guidelines.aspx on 15 May 2016.
Bennett, J., & Reddy, V. (2007). Feeling the disconnect: Teaching sexualities and gender in South African higher education. Feminist Africa, 9, 43-63.
Beyers, W., & Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2010). Does identity precede intimacy? Testing Erikson’s theory on romantic development in emerging adults of the 21st century. Journal of Adolescent Research, 25, 387-415.
Buckler, L.M. (2005). Gender differences in identity and intimacy development. (Thesis). University of Guelph.
Bond, T. (2015). Standards and ethics for counselling in action, fourth edition. Los Angeles: Sage
Bosede, A.F. (2010). Ethical principles of guidance and counselling. International Journal of Tropical Medicine, 5(2), 50-53.
Cornwall, A., & Jolly, S. (2006). Sexuality matters. IDS Bulletin, 37(5), 1-28.
Dannhauser, P. (2006). Representation of coloured identity in selected visual texts about Westbury, Johannesburg. (Thesis). University of the Witwatersrand.
Dunne, M. (2008). Gender, sexuality and development: Education and society in Sub-Saharan Africa. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers
Elkind, D. (1970). Erik Erikson’s eight stages of man. New York Times Magazine, 81-86
Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Esplen, E. (2007). Gender and sexuality: Supporting resources collection. Brighton: Bridge Publications.
Gauvain, M., & Cole, M. (eds.). (1994). Readings on the development of children, 2nd Ed. New York: Freeman.
Gupta, G.R. (2000). Gender, sexuality and HIV/AIDS: The what, the why and the how. International AIDS conference. Durban
Ilkkaracan, P., & Jolly, S. (2007). Gender and sexuality. Sussex: Institute of Developmental Studies.
International HIV/AIDS Alliance. (2007). Keep the best, change the rest: Participatory tools for working with communities on gender and sexuality. South Africa: Alliance Publications.
Jenkins, R.D. (2013). Gender and sexuality in South Africa and the production of systematic inequalities. Journal Research in Peace, Gender and Development, 3(8), 142-148.
Jolly, S. (2003). Development myths around sex and sexualities in the South. Retrieved from http://wwwsiyanda.org/docsjolly_gendermyth.doc on 13 May 2016.
Kohlberg, L.A. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of children’s sex role concepts and attitudes. In E.E Maccoby (Ed.). The development of sex differences. Stanford University Press, Stanford, p82-173.
Larson, R.W., & Brown, J. (2007). Emotional development in adolescence: What can be learned from a high school theatre program? Child Development, 78 (4), 1083-1099.
Lewis, D. (2003). African feminist studies: A review essay for the African gender institute’s strengthening gender and women’s studies for Africa’s social transformation project. Retrieved from http://www.gwsafrica.org/knowledge on 14 May 2016.
Link, S. (2009). Sexual development across the lifespan. United States: Great Neck Publishing.
Milani, T.M. (2015). Language, gender and sexuality in South Africa. Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics Plus, 46, 1-5.
Oswalt, A. (2010). James Marcia and self-identity- child development theory: Adolescence. Retrieved from http://www.mentalhelp.net/article/james-marcia-and-self-identity on 14 May 2016.
Posel, D. (2004). Getting the nation talking about sex: reflection on the discursive constitution of sexuality in South Africa since 1994. Agenda, 62(2), 53-63.
Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. (2016). Theories of personality. Florida: Cengage Learning
Stang,J., & Story, M. (2005). Guidelines for adolescent nutrition services. Retrieved from http://www.epi.umn.edu/let/pubs/adol_book.shtm on 13 May 2016.
Steensma, T.D., Kreukels, B.P.C., de Vries, A.L.C., & Cohen-Kettenis, P.T. (2013). Gender identity development in adolescence. Hormones and Behaviour, 64(2), 288-297.
Ruffin, N. (2009). Adolescent growth and development. Virginia Cooperative Extension, 350 (850), 1-5.
Waterman, A.L. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychology, 18(3), 341-358.
World Health Organisation. (2006). Defining sexual health: Report of a technical consultation on sexual health. Geneva: World Health Organisation Press