Paste your essay in here…We can identify and explain application of theories and principles of learning and communication to inclusive learning and teaching. As mentioned by Wilson (2009), the psychology of learning states three theories of learning relating to the study of human behaviour namely:
1) Behaviourism Learning Theory: Behaviourist psychologists believe that "behaviour is learned from things seen around them or from the environment, or that individuals respond to stimuli and that learning and the ability to learn requires a change in behaviour" Wilson, (2009, p 351). Behaviour learning is based on the fact that learners, and people in general, behave in a particular way if that behaviour has been previously rewarded. Learners tend to repeat past behaviours if they have had a positive experience and avoid it if the behaviour resulted in a negative experience. It is about “conditioning” the learner to respond to the teacher. In practical terms, reinforcement of positive behaviour from the beginning, sets guidance for all learners including those with learning difficulties. Acknowledgement of good behaviour and negative consequences for bad behaviour, reminds students of classroom regulations. Some form of positive reinforcement is crucial. This can be introduced into teaching sessions by way of praise, feedback, rewards and incentives.
2) Cognitivist Learning Theory: The cognitivists believe that learning occurs by thought process, sense and experience. For learning to be a useful exercise, in addition to new facts and figures, the learner should evaluate, analyse, critically reflect, integrate the information into existing knowledge and solve problems. The students should be asked searching questions to encourage thought process, stimulate conversation, and develop confidence and a deeper understanding of the subject.
3) Humanist Learning Theory: In this theory, the learner takes over control of learning and the teacher facilitates the development of this learning setup. Key to this is a good working environment that enables the students to explore and experiment without fear of failure. This ongoing self-evaluation and reflection results in the holistic development of the learner.
In addition to the above, other theories include Vygotsky’s “Private Speech Voice” theory. As adults, we sometimes talk aloud- also termed as “Private Speech”- to help with focusing on the task at hand and also to reinforce learning. As a teacher, its necessary to let the learners listen to their own “inner speech”, to reinforce learning and enable students to take control of the learning process.
Vygotsky’s theories of group work include the belief that students should also learn from each other with the ‘strong guiding the weak’. This is based on the premise that, regardless of age, education is an individual process and everybody sets his or her own pace in learning. However, this theory may not be applicable at all times- a weaker student might hold back a stronger student within the classroom environment.
For inclusive learning to occur, the teacher should be aware of individual needs of each learner within the group. The teacher should also be aware of potential limitations, past experiences of learning (either good or bad) and future goals of each learner. This enables the teacher to adapt the lesson plan to cater to all in the group, typically accomplished by the initial assessment process. The purpose of education for the learners within a particular field is similar but their goals may be different. Therefore, each learner has different needs and they require help in progressing towards their goals in different ways.
To facilitate inclusive learning, a variety of resources are needed to gauge the learners’ interests and understanding, as well as to deliver teaching in an appropriate manner tailored to their needs. A resource is "Anything that you use to augment your teaching or learning strategy, or anything that you get your students to use, can be termed a learning aid or a resource". (Reece & Walker, 2000, p195). There are a number of resources that can be used such as; Interactive board, whiteboard, computers, laptops, books, handouts, flipcharts, games, posters, Internet websites, guest speakers, etc. The students should be encouraged to use audio, visual and kinaesthetic resources in all aspects of their learning and this helps in the development of their functional skills too.
While its essential to use different kinds of resources, it is important to consider differentiation while planning lessons and resources. Differentiation is "catering for the needs of all learners to reduce barriers to learning" (Wilson, 2009; p 396). In other words, it is important that the resources used and the lesson plan meets the needs of all learners within the group. To ensure this, the following factors need to be considered, namely; learning styles, motivation, gender, behaviour, age / maturity, special needs, learning difficulties, disability, etc.
Learners come from different backgrounds and possess differing capabilities. In view of this, it is important to embed the minimum core within the curriculum. Teachers need to analyse the LLN and ICT needs of all the students by initial assessment and take them into consideration in various teaching activities. Use of different kinds of resources to support the minimum core skills within the lesson plan is essential.
Communication
The word Communication is derived from the latin word Communis, which means to make Common. It can be defined as “an exchange of facts, ideas, or opinions by two or more persons” (Newman and Summer) and also as “the exchange of information and transmission of meaning” (Katz and Khan). In practical terms, it is a process wherein a speaker prepares messages to be transmitted to the receiver and elicits a desired response in the receiver. For effective communication to happen, the three essential concepts namely language, culture and environment have to be compatible. There are different types of communication such as
1) Intrapersonal: This refers to internal communication within a person and includes thinking, meditation, and dreams.
2) Non-verbal: This is a method to express true feelings and emotions. It includes kinesis (body motion or behaviour), paralinguistic (gestures, tone or signals) and proxemics (space).
3) Interpersonal: This refers to direct one to one communication between two persons. Effective interpersonal communication is possible when there is openness, empathy, positivity and equality.
4) Group: This takes place between three or more persons. The degree of directness and trust is dependent on the group size.
5) Mass communication media such as newspapers, radio, television, Internet, etc. This is effective to communicate messages to a large population but lacks the scope for feedback and is impersonal.
Communication has several functions such as dissemination of information & knowledge, instruction, persuasion, debate / discussion, cultural promotion, integration, entertainment and promote social interaction.
Models of Communication:
1) Aristotle’s Model: This was proposed by the Greek philosopher and includes the 5 essential elements of communication viz. speaker, speech / message, audience, effect and occasion. The speaker should construct a speech for different audiences on different occasions for different effects and is most applicable for public speaking.
2) Lasswell’s Model: This model stresses on the effect of the message rather than the content i.e. the observable or measurable change in the receiver. This model was the basis of mass media research until the 1960’s.
3) Shannon and Weaver’s Model: Also called as the mathematical theory of communication, it attempts to provide a solution to send maximum information within a given channel.
4) Newcomb’s Model: According to this model, the primary role of communication is to maintain equilibrium in a social relationship.
5) Charles E Osgood’s Model: In this model, communication is considered to be a dynamic process with a healthy interactive relationship between the source and the receiver.
Theories and Principles of formal and informal assessment to enable learning and progression
Introduction
Educationalists accept that assessment usually drives student learning. Most of the time, the students prioritise what they learn based on the assessment and spend considerable time on it. Hence teachers need to create assessment plans that deliver the learning outcomes and assess the students appropriately. The aim of the assessment should be to produce deep rather than surface learners. The primary purpose of assessment is to improve student performance. Assessments should be an integral component of course design and shouldn’t be an after thought process.
McAlpine (2002) said that assessment is a form of communication, primarily between student and teacher, but also to employers, curriculum designers and policymakers. Assessment is a social function, a communications link between the education system and wider society. McAlpine then breaks assessment down into five criteria: clarity of purpose; validity/reliability; referencing (establish a common measure across all candidates); the quality of assessment items/instruments; and grading, a process that relates directly to referencing.
There are different classifications of assessment:
1) Summative assessment is one that denotes a student’s competence and used to grade a module or degree. It determines whether the student has attained the learning outcomes for the module. It is generally given at the end of the course and is used for progression. Examples include IQ tests, examinations, etc.
2) Formative assessment that is primarily used to provided a student feedback on areas of weakness and not used for grading. Black and Dylan (2001) argue that this type of assessment is used to guide the learning process, obtain more information and observe a learner’s skills and abilities. Examples include essays, computer-based tests, etc.
3) Continuous assessment that is made of numerous tasks for individual assessment. This form of assessment gives a measure of a student’s capabilities and time management (Brown, 2001). Even though the workload of both staff and students with this method of assessment is increased, it is evenly distributed and regular feedback guides the students’ future learning.
Other kinds of assessments include formal or informal. Formal assessments include examinations, coursework essays, dissertations, etc. Informal assessments include self-assessment tests, lecturers’ notes during practical classes, etc. Teacher assessments tend to build up a profile of students’ strengths and weaknesses. Formal assessments are fairer, have explicit criteria, less biased and students are aware of them well in advance. However, it is well known that such tests are stressful with negative consequences and some students may cram and perform well, albeit without a deeper understanding. Informal assessments are less stressful, give a wider view of a student’s abilities but have a significant assessor bias involved.
Assessments can also be convergent- where students arrive at one answer/ conclusion or divergent- students need to reach a range of answers based on informed opinion and analysis. Examples include a computerised objective test for convergent and essay type questions for divergent assessment. Convergent assessments are quicker to mark, either automated or by human, provide direct feedback but limited in scope. Divergent assessments are more realistic, assess higher cognitive skills but require a greater marking skill.
Routine teaching practice involves regular assessment activities. Teachers set tasks and ask questions. Learners respond to them and teachers make judgements based on those responses. Teachers should communicate and clearly define the assessment criteria on which their progress is to be assessed. Teachers need to promote peer and self-assessment and demonstrate how assessment criteria are to be met with the use of appropriate examples.
The principal characteristic of Assessment for Learning and Progression is effective feedback to learners on their progress. This can be in oral or written format. Feedback that provides correction or improvement in assignments is valued and motivates learners. It should contain commendation on work well done as well as give constructive advice and guidance on areas that need improvement. Feedback should be delivered in a positive manner, tailored to the needs of the learner, focus on performance or behaviour, based on hard data and facts and should not be of a personal nature.
Effective, timely feedback gives a lot of benefits to learners. It improves progress, achievement, time management, attendance, motivation, confidence and learner participation in the classroom activities.
Conduct of Assessment Tool
I was involved in teaching a class of learners who were all postgraduates with varied background such as science, psychology, ESOL and mathematics. The topic was GCSE revision of fractions, decimals and percentage.
Methods of assessments used:
1) Starter activity (Self-assessed): Individual activity conducted to ascertain the existing knowledge and understanding of fractions and recognise prior learning activities. This was a self-assessment wherein the learners assessed themselves with the answers provided by myself. In this format, learners themselves decide their level of progression and how they meet the assessment criteria. It promotes learner involvement, gives personal autonomy and encourages reflection. It also saves time by avoiding duplication. This also helps to establish a good working environment and in control of their own learning i.e. applied the Humanist Learning Theory.
There are however some limitations. Learners may have a sense of over or under achievement, assessors may need to discuss progress and achievements with each learner and learners may find it difficult to be objective in decision-making.
2) Ask questions: This is a primary technique for assessment of understanding, stimulate thought process and involves different kinds of questions such as open, leading, multiple choice, etc. During the class, I asked oral informal questions, name directed questions to ensure that all the learners were actively engaged and leading questions that encouraged learners to come up with the next steps in problem solving. I used positive reinforcement (behaviourism) by smiling / nodding, praised correct responses and gave verbal feedback immediately. Questions have many strengths namely; challenge a learner’s potential, test critical arguments and reasoning and they can be short or long essay type. There are certain limitations such as; questions can be time consuming and attention to detail is required to prevent any ambiguity, they are easier to plagiarise, grading criteria need to be produced beforehand and closed questions do not demonstrate knowledge or understanding.
3) Test (Formative assessment): A test was conducted at the end of the lesson. It was in the format of single line answers as well as essay type questions. This type of test therefore was a convergent (objective) type of assessment with real life applications. The criteria set were to achieve all the learning outcomes. The test was pitched to all the learners at the required level, inclusive i.e. available to all and was created with different degrees of difficulty to address differentiation. All the learners therefore had an equal chance of an accurate assessment decision. The grading was based on percentage of correct responses. Those with >70% were awarded distinction, 60-69% were given merit and 40-59% were awarded a pass. They were individually assessed and feedback was given in written format.
Feedback was specific to the topic discussed, constructive with commendation on good work and guidance was provided on ways to improve upon incorrect responses. Feedback was also provided informally during the class in response to questions raised and during the starter activity too. Effective feedback provides information about the learners’ progress and also motivates them. A combination of oral and written feedback is better to retain learners’ motivation. The feedback was given to the students at the end of the class. Skinner, 1974, said, "Giving immediate feedback whether positive or negative will enable a learner to behave in a certain way”- thereby applying the Behaviourism Learning Theory. Feedback can lose its impact if its left too long.
Some of the limitations were that a few learners were not challenged appropriately and some of the questions were misunderstood resulting in wrong answers. However, in the feedback, it was mentioned that some of the questions had to be reframed in order to convey the desired message, thereby absolving the students of blame.
4) Reflection: In this assessment, learners were asked to reflect upon the practical application of their theoretical base and link it to the assessment criteria- this applies the Cognitivist Learning Theory wherein the students were able to critically reflect and integrate the information into their own knowledge base. It also tested their literacy skills, as a particular level of understanding is required for comprehension. It is a type of self-assessment, assessed formally and very useful for higher-level learners. It can however, be time consuming, requires considerable skills of reflective writing and cross-referencing and some learners might develop a sense of over achievement.
Summary of Feedback from Learners
1. What did you find valuable about the assessments?
The feedback was positive from all the students. They particularly liked the clarity of presentation with real life applications and its usefulness in day-to-day numeracy development. It was well organized, linked to the starter activity and reminded them of their own GCSE exams.
2. The assessments could have been better if …
The students would have liked more challenging questions and necessity for directed questioning to assess understanding.
3. How much did the teaching and the assessments help in learning?
The feedback from all the students was highly positive and all of the mentioned that it was highly beneficial to them. One of the students appreciated the targets set to achieve and it helped that she was given a chance to participate in the lesson by way of questions.
4. Were you encouraged or discouraged by the assessments?
The students felt encouraged though one of them did mention that as mathematics wasn’t their subject, she did feel disinterested.
5. Additional comments?
One of the students mentioned that the feedback given to her was very constructive with appropriate guidance given to her.
6. Overall rating (1-10, where 1-poor and 1-excellent)
The ratings given ranged from 8 to 10.
Critical Evaluation of Assessment
The assessment was valid as it achieved all the learning outcomes; the knowledge and skills imparted were integrated into real life day-to-day applications. It was fair- the students received clear communication regarding the assessment process and grading criteria in advance. The assessment also was flexible as all the students’ backgrounds were identified and their prior learning in this subject was identified. The assessment was complete and sufficient as all the learning outcomes were appropriately covered. It also was reliable- with myself as an assessor and with a mathematical background, I was able to interpret the answers provided by the students keeping their prior learning in mind and it was in my field of expertise.
The assessment enables learning and progression for all learners. They help to build up a profile of students based on their strengths and weaknesses. The students achieved all the learning outcomes. Effective feedback was delivered in a positive manner, tailored to all their needs, irrespective of their backgrounds, focussed on their performance, based on objective test results.
Assessment by University of Bolton
The generic assessment criteria used by the Assessment Boards are defined in the University’s Academic Regulations on the Assessment of Students, which is as below:
Grade Description Mark
Work of Exceptional Quality 70+
Work of Very Good Quality 60-69
Work of Good Quality 50-59
Work of Satisfactory Quality 40-49
Borderline 35-39
Fail Below 35
Assessed Board Outcomes relating to a Programme of Study with respect to Progression as laid down by the University are as below:
1) Complete or Proceed to Next Stage/Year
a) Pass and Complete
b) Pass and Proceed
c) Proceed with Result Outstanding
5) Not to Proceed to Next Stage/Year
3) No Decision on Student Status