they handle them?
Introduction
Prior to the fourteenth century, Europe expanded rapidly due to growth in mathematical and intellectual sophistications. The Medieval Industrial Revolution in the early 1300s was driven by mechanical discoveries and water power. However, Europe experienced significant religious, political, and demographic crises in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, bringing an end to centuries of prosperity. This era marked a break between the Middle Age and Renaissance. As the Medieval Warm period came close to an end, ushering in the Little Ice Age, Europe experienced a series of famines and diseases including the Great Famine of 1315-1317. These famines, together with the Black Death of 1348 and the Hundred Year’s War (1337-1450), caused a significant drop in European populations. Therefore, the 14th and 15th centuries was a period of turmoil, loss of institutional confidence, helplessness, and diminished expectations; caused by forces beyond human control, compounded by political and religious standoffs.
Demographic Crises
Before 14th century, Europe’s population had risen significantly due to the increased living standards of the people following the centuries of prosperity during the Medieval Warm Period. Some historians argue that Europe was overpopulated at the beginning of the 14th century, and the continent ceased to expand. As the population remained high and the economies of Europe failed to expand, the medieval warm period also ended and paved way for the Little Ice Age. European countries experienced harsh winters, and harvests declined significantly.
Due to these events, agricultural production decreased in Europe, leading to food shortages and inflated food prices. Weak harvests and harsh winters led to the Great Famine between 1915 and 1917. The scarcity of hay, wheat, and livestock led to malnutrition among the populations of Europe. Malnutrition causes the body’s immunity to weaken, leading to increased disease infections. These famines contributed directly to the decline of Europe’s populations, and accelerated diseases that were the major causes of the population decrease.
The Little Ice Age weakened European agricultural production and resulted in poor living conditions, but the bubonic plague culminated to immense demographic disaster. Following the fall of Callais in 1347, Genoese trading ships arriving from the Black Sea harboured at Sicily with dead and dying men. They were infected with the Bubonic Plague, characterized by swellings in the armpits and groin, oozing blood, boils, and internal bleeding. The plague brought Black Death to Europe through the Genoese traders, causing a rapid decline of European population. Between 1347 and 1348 alone, it is estimated that almost a third of the total European population perished through the bubonic plague.
The bubonic plague occurred in two forms. The first one affected the bloodstream, causing swellings (buboes) and internal bleeding. It was spread through human contact. The second form of the disease was pneumonic and viral in nature, affecting the lungs and the respiratory system. It was spread through respiratory infection. The presence of the two forms of bubonic plague in Europe led to the increased severity of the disease, causing higher mortality rates and spreading speed. There was no known remedy or preventive measure for the pestilence at that time, making the disease more lethal. People could go to bed feeling well, never to wake up the following morning.
By the start of 1348, the disease had spread to French cities such as Marseille, and North Africa through Tunis. Through ships navigable seas and oceans, the disease spread throughout Europe, magnifying its disastrous effects to the entire continent. As a result, Europe experienced the highest levels of population decrease than ever before. In a community that already suffered famines and harsh climatic conditions, the Black Death became so immense that the entire Europe mourned. A third of the world died from the plague. This fraction would translate to a total population of 20 million deaths. However, this number is not accurate because contemporary reports are nothing but wed impressions, and historical records were not kept. In the crowded town of Avignon, almost 400 people died daily, and approximately 11, 000 corpses were buried every week. In Paris, more than 800 people died daily, and in Vienna nearly 500-600 people also died every day Therefore, the Black Death was a significant threat to the demographic populations, and a serious crisis in Europe.
Social and Political Crises
During the 14th and 15th centuries, Europe experienced revolts and upheavals due the socioeconomic problems faced by the remnants of the Black Death. For example, the Peasants’ revolt of 1381 in London was caused by noble demands on a population that was struggling to recover from the effects of the Black Death. Some of the grievances of the revolting class included: declining incomes, costs of French War, and poor administration from the ruling class. The poll tax on adults that was imposed in 1380 sparked a rebellion that was just waiting for an opportune moment to explode.
The revolting commons led by Walter Helier caused significant damages in London. They incited the citizens to participate in the revolt, leading to a serious revolt. In this revolt, properties such as gold and silver, cloths and silk, and precious stones were destroyed. The temple bar was also ambushed, and several people were killed including the archbishop. Finally, the leader of the Revolt, Walter Helier, was killed by the King’s men. The king also agreed to give the commons a written and sealed charter to end the revolt. By then, great damage had been sustained.
The Hundred years’ war in France was also a serious problem in Europe between 14th and 15th centuries. The war lasted between 1337 and 1450. William the Conqueror established a French rule in England after conquering the country in 1066. The throne was passed down from one French King to another, until Edward III launched war to establish sovereignty of England. The Battles of Crecy (1346) and Agincourt (1416) were won by the French aristocracy. The war occurred in four phases. In the first three phases, the French power was successively weakened; and England was strengthened. In the fourth phase, King Henry V invaded France in the battle of Agincourt where English troops lost terribly and were banished from Europe for good.
Religious Schism (1378-1417)
As the upheavals against French dominance in Europe ensued, the rest of Europe started to fight against the Roman Catholic Church. A French Pope appointed in 1309 moved to Avignon, France. The Roman Empire lost cohesion, and the Western Schism shattered the prosperity of the Roman Catholic Church. The move of the papacy from Rome to Avignon caused a significant opposition in Italy. Marsilius of Padua argued that the power lied on the hands of the people, and the people should appoint the Pope through a general council of the church. William of Ockham also claimed that the power of the church lied in the hands of the congregation of the faithful. These oppositions against the French aristocracy and the papacy led to divisions of the church, compounding the European crises in the 15th century.
How did Europe handle these Issues?
Regarding the famine and disease, most European governments instituted policies and measures that prevented exports of foodstuffs to safeguard food security in Europe and tame escalation of food prices. Black market speculators were also eliminated and price controls were implemented. In terms of wars and revolts, the governments signed agreements with rebel groups such as the Peasant Revolution in England, and killed some of their leaders to tame the outbreaks of war. As the population decreased, shortage of labour increased, and the people experienced increase in income. These initiatives improved lifestyles of people and reduced wars and uprisings. The schism in church was also overcome by giving independent jurisdictions and sovereignty of churches in different countries.
Conclusion
Clearly, the crises experienced in Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries were caused by natural and artificial phenomena. Religious, socio-political and democratic factors led to the crises, and the European governments used posterity measures to handle those issues. The harsh winter conditions, declined harvests, and the bubonic disease caused a decrease in Europe’s population by a third. Social and political upheavals including the French Hundred Years’ War also caused loss of lives and turbulent political environment. Lastly, the schism experienced in the church caused disunity in Europe. However, the European governments developed measures to improve the lives of their people and tame revolts and divisions in the church, including the measure of giving each country the sovereignty to govern its own people.