The academic success of college students can be impacted by stereotypes and self-concept, academic integration, and the interaction of diverse groups. All of these factors are related to the effects of campus climate on academic performance. These effects on academic performance include grade point averages, test scores, completion of course work, and graduation rates. It is important to note that both majority and minority groups can have positive and negative experiences as a result of diversity, identity validation, and integration at their institution. The studies shown in this literature review support the idea that academic institutions should aim for more integration.
Stereotypes and Self-Concept: Identity Threat and Self Affirmation
Stereotypes can indicate negative and positive implications towards targeted groups, both of which affect student self-concept and academic performance. Negative stereotypes are dangerous as they often can lead to discrimination of individuals (Harrison et al., 2009). Even if this discrimination is subtle or non-confronting, it can still have psychologically harmful effects on the person being targeted. Steele’s (1997) theoretical framework on stereotypes models that threat to an individual’s identity (due to circumstances such as discrimination, negative interactions, and racist commentary) can lead to increased concern of completing the task at hand. This imposes a psychological burden and minimizes the skill and motivation to complete that task. Steele and Aronson (1995) conducted a study to reveal how stereotypes involving identity threats may impact potential performance. In this study, two groups of African American participants were given an academic test. One test was framed as “diagnostic of verbal ability” and the other was not classified as diagnostic with this stereotypical category. The students who took the perceived diagnostic test scored poorly compared to the non-diagnostic tested students. In similar studies, inducing identity threat to the extent that it affects performance requires little effort in identity priming; for example, by asking a question of racial or gender identity prior to taking a test (Harrison et al., 2009). “The Role of Gender Identities” set out to determine the link between gender identity, academic performance, and stereotypes by manipulating identity prime to both male and female college athletes (Harrison et. al, 2009). Similar to the Steele and Aronson experiments, the college athletes were asked questions based on their identity prior to taking a 40-item test using questions derived from the SAT and GRE. The 88 students (45 male and 43 female) were separated into three categories that signified what identity prime they would be introduced to: athletic-only prime, academic-athlete prime, and a neutral prime condition. The students were asked to place check marks next to the identity prime statements assigned to them (“I am an athlete” or “I am a scholar-athlete” or “I am a research participant”). Results show that their performance was most poor when the athletic identity was tied with the identity of a “scholar-athlete”, specifically in female athletes. This indicates that combining two conflicting identities (as stereotypes suggest) may propose an idea about the compartmentalization of the two identities when negative stereotypes are present. The results also support the idea that identity priming as influenced by negative stereotypes affects performance in the academic setting, specifically because the athletic prime lowered self-regard and performance. Negative stereotypes on college campuses can also affect student success by their perceived notion of discrimination from professors, administrators, and peers (Davis, 1994). As found in the results of “College in White and Black”, where African American black males were surveyed on their experiences in white institutions versus primarily black colleges, the perceived discrimination significantly affected their success at primarily white institutions. Negative stereotypes can impose identity threats to college students, which in turn can be detrimental to their academic success.
On the contrary, positive stereotypes can serve as a means of self-affirmation and confidence for college students, which may benefit their academic performance. A component of “The Role of Gender Identities” is the role identity can play in affirming confidence, specifically found in males (Harrison et al, 2009). Results assumed the impact of positive stereotypes on performance, as male college athletes performed better on the test given. Positive stereotypes for the male athlete identity compared to other groups include masculinity, superiority in athletics, competitive behavior, and increased popularity. Therefore, when primed for their identity, these positive stereotypes serve as a confidence boost and may influence higher academic performance. This concept is also found amongst immigrants that are placed in more culturally diverse academic environments (Konan, Chatard, Selimbegovic, & Mugny, 2010). Research suggests that in groups compiling many different cultures, immigrants feel less threatened by identity and more safe due to the lack of a “solo status”, which make them feel more competent and confident in their identities. The lack of identity threat amongst racially diverse groups allows for more academic success. Although stereotypes often put students at risk for identity threat and subtle discrimination, positive stereotypes can generate self-confidence and a higher rate of student success, as shown amongst male athletes and immigrants in racially diverse academic settings.
Academic Integration
Personalization and a student’s sense of belonging in educational settings is vital to achieve highest academic success, as studies suggest. A study evaluating school climate and student achievement at the high school level concluded that a higher level of personalization leads to higher performance (Jones, Yonezawa, Mehan, & McClure, 2008). This relationship was found when comparing the surveys in which students commented on the personalization they felt their school provided and their scores on California Standards Tests, grade point averages, and completion of graduation requirements. This study also suggested that smaller schools and class sizes were found to induce personalization as students described. Students implied that smaller schools resulted in more caring relationships between students and faculty because of individualization, which results in a feeling of importance in the student. This feeling of importance relates to a sense of belonging, which also positively impacts academic performance.
Students’ sense of belonging may be vital to how experiences on the college campus may affect the students’ academic performance. In a study revealing the perceptions of campus racial climate amongst Latino college students, students’ interactions were found to influence social integration and affected student satisfaction, commitment to college, and ultimately the decision to stay enrolled, leave the institution, or dropout of school entirely (Hurtado & Carter, 1997). Spady (1971) suggested that there is a distinction between students’ interactions and their perceived social integration, defined by Spady as a psychological aspect of students’ subjective sense of integration. Spady showed the nature of social and academic experiences that influenced the subjective feelings of integration completely differed between gender identities and races. Students have different needs when seeking integration, which would suggest why personalization on college campuses is necessary. As discussed in “College in Black and White”, a solution to leveling out African American males’ perception of institutional support between white institutions and primarily black colleges is for the white institutions to provide greater integration of African American males into the college setting (Davis, 1994). This relates to a primary reason why students are identified by gender, racial, ethnic, and academic differences and surveyed on campus climate: to ensure that each students’ needs for integration and inclusion is met.
Specific Group Interactions and Their Effects on Academic Success
Research suggests that cultural diversity in classrooms influences specific features of academic performance. For example, in a cross-national study, both immigrant and non-immigrant students were found to perform better on tasks involving complex thinking, idea generation, and reading comprehension (Konan, Chatard, Selimbegovic, & Mugny, 2010). The different opinions in heterogeneous groups created a heightened sense of reasoning amongst both majority and minority groups, as the idea creativity promotes different ways of thinking in all individual students. The comparative analysis conducted between black and white institutions in “College in Black and White” tested multiple variables to find differences between the two academic environments, including college-level variables such as academic integration, study habits, peer relations, institutional support, and academic achievement (Davis, 1994). While the GPAs and test scores of black students at white institutions were lower than at black institutions, the study habits of the African American males were significantly better at white institutions. The research supports the idea that students will perform differently, and perhaps academically better, when the college provides a diverse environment.
A popular theory on diverse groups in the same setting is the ingroup/outgroup theory, which can be present in educational settings. For example, this phenomenon may pose a threat to student psychological and mental health, as ingroups and outgroups can cause hostility, subtle discrimination and racism, and an unhealthy sense of competition (Konan, Chatard, Selimbegovic, & Mugny, 2010). On the contrary, the motivation to compete amongst other groups for the “dominant” position can foster motivation to work towards academic goals, leading to academic success. Previously stated, an example that supports this is amongst the male college athletes. As this group is tied with positive stereotypes, the individuals in the group experience an amount of pressure (that can be either healthy or unhealthy) to maintain those stereotypes and superior position (Harrison et al., 2009). The idea of ingroups also provides reasoning for the importance of on-campus groups such as the Black Student Union. The “College in Black and White” study concluded these types of groups can be beneficial to integration and lead to academic success for black students at white institutions (Davis, 1994). Students at the white institution showed common needs for support on campus; therefore, groups like the Black Student Union can help black students cope with academic, social, and racial issues on white campuses that are common amongst the black students. The cultural diversity within college campuses can positively influence academic success by promoting varying opinions and ideas and when healthy ingroup and outgroup competition is present and institutions provide integration support.