Societal
Imperial China (221 BC – 1912 AD)
The Chinese social structure has an extensive history that dates back all the way to the feudal society of Imperial China. Throughout the entirety of Imperial China, from the Qin Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, the government divided people into four classes: landlord, peasant, craftsmen and merchant. The major classes were landlords and peasants while the merchants and craftsmen were the minor classes. Only the position of the Emperor was hereditary. After the Han Dynasty (202 BC to 220 AD), there was a partial restoration of feudalism as wealthy and powerful families emerged with an abundant supply of land and large number of semi-serfs. They dominated the most important civilian and government military positions, making those positions available to members of their own families. During the Tang Dynasty (618 AD to 907 AD), the government implemented the Imperial examination system in an attempt to eliminate this re-emerging feudalism.
Modern China (1912 – Present)
1912 began China’s transition from the Imperial to the Warlord Era. Industrialization was slow to non-existent. Between 1920 and 1949, the industrial sector increased by less than 3 million members, most of which were women and children working in cotton mills. The major social changes were military. In 1924, the Soviet Union helped Sun Yat-sen rebuild the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) party and military force. After the reunification of China, Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the KMT, with the help of organizations such as the Green Gang, attacked the Communists.
After 1949, the revolutionaries became the ruling class and the cadres of the Communist Party were the new upper class. The cadre status gave them access to materials and options that were unfairly distributed amongst the population. They were also protected from the intense competition for living space that existed because of the constant demand for housing. During the land reform, the landlord class was eliminated. In 1959, there were 10 million state cadres, 35 million state workers and 200 million peasants. Because a majority of the population was composed of peasants, Chinese society was typical of agrarian societies.
Following the land reforms, Mao Zedong implemented a system of communes in which land was supposed to be worked equally by peasants. His goal was to capitalize on the number of peasants and effectively produce a surplus harvest that would in turn help industrialization. Known as the Great Leap Forward, this endeavor failed and resulted in the death of 20 to 30 million peasants. Similarly to how farmers worked in communes, state workers were placed into units called danweis. An increasing amount of workers were high school graduates as a result of urban education growing at a faster rate than in rural areas.
Around this time, the hukou system emerged, dividing the population into urban and rural residents. The purpose of this was to make the distribution of state services through danweis and communes easier. It also better organized the population in preparation for a possible Soviet invasion. This system made it illegal to migrate from the countryside to the city.
The Cultural Revolution caused another change in the composition of society. Schools were closed and a large portion of the youth were sent to the countryside in order to learn from the peasants. The concern for peasants grew, as reflected in the medical and educational services called barefoot doctors and barefoot teachers. The life expectancy increased from less than 40 before 1949 to greater than 60 in the 1970s. Peasants were still the most illiterate, powerless and poorest social class.
After the Chinese economic reform began in 1978, economic development caused Mao’s Communist system to fall apart. In the countryside, communes were nonexistent by 1984. Danweis began to fire workers because they were expensive and inefficient. Despite it being illegal under the hukou household registration system, peasants began to look for jobs in cities and other rural areas. In 1991, the number of peasant workers surpassed the number of state workers. Migrant workers have become the main contributors of the Chinese working class. The growth in the number of migrant workers is a result of the Reform and Opening Policy. After 1979, capitalist-owned businesses became responsible for most of China’s economic growth and creation of jobs.
The Communist Party of China (CPC) has adapted to the new system. From 1979 to 1993, the cadres increased from 18 million to 37 million. After 1993, the cadre class grew until it finally reached its maximum of 40 million when the government decided to freeze membership. The capitalist class is comprised of mostly cadres, party members and state professionals. Despite this there is still tension between the capitalists and the Communist state due to taxes and lack of access to state bank loans. The capitalists account for three-fourths to four-fifths of China’s GDP, but only pay one-third or less of aggregate taxes. The state businesses pays the other two-thirds. Most capitalists are able to successfully avoid taxes with the help of local governments.
Cultural
Religion
Currently, China only has five official religions. Although the Chinese constitution states that people are allowed freedom of religion, any religion other than Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism is illegal. Religious tolerance has only started to develop in the last few decades. About one-fourth of the population practice Taoism, Confucianism and other traditional religions. The are also small numbers of Buddhists, Muslims and Christians. Despite the abundance of Protestant and Catholic ministries since the early 19th century, they have had very little success in converting the Chinese population.
Language
The Chinese language has seven major dialects which each have their own variations. Mandarin is spoken by 71.5% of the population, followed by Wu (8.5%), Cantonese (5%), Xiang (4.8%), Min (4.1%), Hakka (3.7%) and Gan (2.4%). Chinese dialects are all extremely different. According to Jerry Norman, a former professor of linguistics at the University of Washington, “Chinese is rather more like a language family than a single language made up of a number of regional forms. To take an extreme example, there is probably as much difference between the dialects of Peking and Chaozhou as there is between Italian and French.” The official national language of China is Pŭtōnghuà, a variation of Mandarin that is spoken in Beijing. Many Chinese are also fluent in English.
Food
Chinese cuisine is heavily influenced by geography and ethnic diversity. Among the main styles of Chinese cooking are Cantonese and Szechuan. Cantonese food features stir-fried dishes. Szechuan food is heavily reliant on the use of peanuts, sesame paste and ginger. It’s also known for its spiciness. Rice is not only a major food source in China, but also a major element that helped grow the society. Along with bean sprouts, cabbage and scallions, rice is also a staple of the Chinese diet. Because they don’t eat a lot of meat, tofu is the primary source of protein for the Chinese.
Art
Chinese art is influenced by the country’s rich spiritual and mystical history. Many sculptures and paintings portray Buddhist spiritual figures. There are many musical instruments that are integral to Chinese culture such as the xun which is similar to the flute and the guqin that is part of the zither family of stringed instruments. China developed eastern-style martial arts, specifically kung fu, a fighting technique that is based on animal movements and was created in the mid-1600s. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Chinese were avid writers and philosophers, reflected in the country’s ritualistic history.
Customs and celebrations
The Spring Festival falls between mid-January and mid-February, marking the beginning of the Lunar New Year. The festival is a time for honoring ancestors. During this 15-day celebration, the Chinese do something every day to welcome the new year. The holiday is characterized by fireworks and parades featuring dancers that are dressed as dragons. Many people celebrate the birthday of Confucius’ by making pilgrimages to his birthplace in Shandong Province. The birthday of Guanyin, the goddess of mercy is observed by visiting Taoist temples. The birthday of Mazu, goddess of the sea is celebrated similarly. The Moon Festival is celebrated between September and October with fireworks, lanterns and moon gazing.
Economic
Since the 1970s, China has shifted from a closed, centrally planned system to a market-based one that plays a major role globally. China gradually implemented reforms that resulted in higher efficiency leading to a greater than tenfold increase in GDP since 1978. The reforms began with the discontinuation of Mao’s collectivized agriculture system, expanding to include gradual loosening the restrictions on prices, fiscal decentralization, increased autonomy for state businesses, growth of the private sector, development of stock markets and a modern banking system, and opening to foreign trade and investment. Based on the purchasing power parity which accounts for price differences, China in 2017 is the largest economy in the world with a GDP(PPP) of $23.2 trillion, having surpassed the United States in 2014 for the first time in modern history. China became the world’s largest exporter in 2010 (still is), and the largest trading nation in 2013 (second to the US). However, China’s per capita income is below the world average (78th by GDP(PPP)).
After having its currency linked to the US dollar for many years, in July 2005, China moved to an exchange rate system that references a basket of currencies. From mid-2005 to late 2008, the value of the renminbi (RMB) increased by more than 20% against the US dollar. However the exchange rate remained attached to the dollar from the beginning of the 2007-2008 global financial crisis until June 2010, when Beijing allowed for the resumption of a gradual loosening on price restrictions. In 2015, government announced that it would continue to push for the full convertibility of the RMB after the currency was accepted as a part of the International Monetary Fund’s special drawing rights basket. After resisting the appreciation of the RMB for a decade, China’s intervention in foreign exchange markets has attempted to prevent a rapid decrease in the value of the RMB which would have negative consequences for the United States, China and the global economy.
Technology
Political and Legal
Geography and Natural Resources
Sources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_social_structure
https://www.livescience.com/28823-chinese-culture.html
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_China