To what Extent has the Muslim Experience in the US Been Impacted by the Muslim Ban Compared to Both Pre and Post 9/11?
Extended Essay
October 20, 2017
Hanna Hartwig
Abstract
This essay is an anthropological investigation into the Muslim Experience in the United States following terrorist attacks in New York City on September 11th, 2001 compared to Donald Trump’s rise to presidency in the United States, and how these two major events impacted Muslim experience in the US. The research question is approached through an explanation of migration from an anthropological perspective, with an emphasis on agency and mobility.The shift in Muslim experience in the US is explored through an investigation of how non-Muslim individuals in the US perceive Islam following 9/11 compared to Trump’s proposed January 2017 Travel Ban, as well as presentation of the Muslim migrant in the media and other public platforms, and how these aspects came together to create an experience unique to Muslim Americans. These experiences are conveyed through primary sources, such as interviews and narratives, as well as statistics pertaining to the effects of both 9/11 and Trump’s rise to presidency on Muslim Americans in order to fully understand the impact two major events in US modern history had on individual experience in society.
Word Count: 183 Words
Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..1
Introduction………………………………………………………………………..3
Migration…………………………………………………………………………3-5
Migration in Anthropology……………………………………………………….5
9/11 Background…………………………………………………………………..6
Muslim Experience in the United States Pre 9/11…………………………6-7
Post 9/11…………………………………………………………………………7-11
Recurring Stigma: Trump’s Campaign Against Muslims…………….11-13
Travel Ban……………………………………………………………………..13-14
Muslim Experience Following Travel Ban……………………………….14-16
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….16-17
Works Cited…………………………………………………………………..17-20
Introduction
In The Souls of Black Folk, Dubois writes, “The Nation has not yet found peace from its sins; the freedman has not yet found in freedom his promised land” (11). Although Dubois is referencing his experience as an African American male in America leading up to the Civil Rights Movement, his observation is applicable to Muslim experience in the United States in the sense that the refugee is free from persecution or circumstances that resulted in migration but hasn’t yet found freedom in a country which claims to pride itself on religious freedom,open mindedness, acceptance, and equality and justice for all. In the United States today, Muslim Immigration is a controversial topic, and the purpose of this research paper is to explore the overall experience of Muslims in the US and how it has changed pre and post 9/11 compared to today.
Research Question
This essay focuses on the following Research Question via an anthropological approach to migration and analysis of the Muslim American Experience in the US:
To what Extent has the Muslim Experience in the United States been Impacted by US President Trump’s January 2017 Travel Ban Compared to Pre and Post 9/11?
Migration
According to a 2015 article published by philosopher Thomas Nail, “the twenty-first century will be the century of the migrant”. The term “migrant” refers to an individual or group of individuals who are “defined by their movement” (Nail). The cause for their movement stems from a variety of changes, whether they be related to economic or political instability, climate, tourism, or simply relocation. However, there is a profound difference between migration for tourism and migration for refuge. While “neither is free or forced”(Nail), the conditions under which migration occurs varies greatly. When tourists move domestically or internationally, they have control of the social conditions they are exposed to throughout the process of migration. Refugees or those who are migrating to escape certain situations do not have the same control as tourists do, and, typically, are subjected to prejudice and social stigmas more so than those who move for tourism. Char Ullman, when explaining the connection between immigration and english as a second language instruction, writes, “…immigrants are stigmatized to the point they are often seen as an economic threat”. Further presentation of the migrant in media, politics, and discussion initiated by public figures can be integrated into society and promote the idea that migrants, specifically those from religious, ethnicity, or race minority groups in the U.S. bring violence, economic distress, as previously mentioned, and influence others through their personal beliefs in ways that don’t necessarily align with what may be considered typical “American values” or normalities, at least from a historical perspective.
Nail introduces the idea that, in one form or another, “we are all becoming migrants”. He also explains that social and geographical movement is not always the same and the migrant experience varies from person to person. When interpreting migration from an anthropological perspective, there are two primary forms of expulsion, as they relate to the reasons and conditions behind movement. Migration for opportunity, recreation, or profit is considered temporary expulsion, while migration that is dangerous or constrained is referred to as severe or long term expulsion, and every form and condition of migration is on a “migratory spectrum” (Nail). Migrants may experience “expulsion from their territorial, political, juridical, or economic status” (Nail). Although the degree of expulsion changes depending on the conditions of movement, some sort of insecurity, whether it be economic, political, territorial, or juridical is present in some capacity.
Migration in Anthropology
Mobility is an essential part of human development (10). To achieve mobility, individuals require a sense of agency, although their decision to move may not be of their own free will as “people often move under constraints that can be severe, while the gains they reap from moving are very unequally distributed” (10). Ideas of mobility and agency are strongly related to migration, as agency is threatened on both ends of migration, both with what initiates the movement and how the migrant is perceived in a new location. Each individual culture perceives movement different and clashing cultures could hold potential to be controversial. “…cultures are not integrated wholes or static expressions of shared values…every society [contains] groups and factions with differential access to power” (24). The repercussions of movement and limits on individual agency relates to Muslim experience in the US and the travel ban, as mobility has been initiated by certain conditions, and the movement is being perceived as negative by US administration, and is at risk of being stopped.
9/11 Background
On September 11th, 2001, 19 Islamic militants that were a part of an extremist group by the name of Al-Qaeda carried out a terrorist attack on the United States via hijacking four planes; two of which crashed into the World Trade Center, one in the Pentagon, and one into a field in Pennsylvania. 2996 people died during the attacks in New York City, prompting George Bush, the President at the time, to take action against terrorism in the US and initiate Operation Enduring Freedom, which was an “effort to oust the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and destroy Osama Bin Laden’s terrorist network” (19). Although this initiated a manhunt for the “mastermind behind the September 11th attacks” which eventually led to Bin Laden being captured and killed, the stigma and assumptions surrounding the attacks also initiated a complete shift in attitudes towards Muslims and Islam in the United States.
Muslim Experience in The United States Pre 9/11
Before the 9/11 attacks, “some Muslims lived quiet/ uneventful suburban lives; the dentists and the accountants and the attorneys” (8). There wasn’t anything estranging or separating Muslims from non-Muslims, aside from a difference in religion. “We’re your friends, lovers, and spouses, America. We’re your comedians, taxi drivers, chefs, politicians, and singers”. “Only in America” could Muslim immigrants find such respect for religious diversity, open mindedness, and acceptance. Coworkers were willing to reschedule their meetings to recognize Ramadan and Muslim prayer was widely accepted, even encouraged and appreciated (4).
On NPR’s This American Life, Serry, a Muslim American woman, shares her decision to raise her and her husband’s children in the United States, in a pre 9/11 America. She convinced her husband to immigrant to the US and describes their sense of hope with founding a new life. They believed America would be “the perfect place to raise [their] children because because [the children] would never have to go through some of the things [Serry’s husband] went through as a child”.(13) Serry and her husband felt hopeful and they were “really happy. [They] were really happy, very blessed” (13). Where they moved, there was no Mosque within an hour of their house but they thought it was okay because they “always thought [they] were free to practice their religion anywhere [they] were” (13). However, like many other Muslim American families, Serry’s experience in the US would completely shift on 9/11: “That morning of 11 September 2001 as we watched the twin towers crumble on live television, America and I would develop a bond that has proven more and more enduring for better or worse, through sickness and health, than the one I had with my now ex husband” (8).
Post 9/11
When Serry and her husband first moved to the US, they described the hope, happiness, and gratitude they felt towards the opportunity. They were comfortable with their identity as Muslim Americans and embraced previous American values of religious freedom. However, on September 11th 2001, this entire outlook towards their overall experience in America changed. After four years in the same neighborhood, the attacks changed everything. Suddenly, Serry recognized the change in perception towards her and her family by her neighbors. “They didn’t return [Serry’s] greetings and stared at her hijab, the headscarf she wore out of respect for God” (13). “…our minivan had been vandalized. Our windshield was broken and there was a note that was left on the broken windshield saying–essentially ordered us to get out of the country”(13). Once Serry’s daughter, Chloe, entered fourth grade, about a year after the attacks, she also noticed a profound change in how she was treated by her classmates. Initially, her peers hadn’t treated her differently because of her or her family's beliefs, but this changed during a 9/11 anniversary lesson in which the teacher passed out a book essentially saying, in the words of Serry, that “Muslims hate Christians. Muslims hate Americans. Muslims believe that anyone who doesn’t practice Islam is evil, and that the Koran teaches war and hate” (13). Chloe describes watching her classmates read the book: “…their eyes started to widen, and they just kind of looked at me every time she said the word Muslim.There were some pictures of Muslim ladies wearing the headscarf, hijab. And some of them said, ‘Hey, those weird ladies. Her mom is one of them.’ And then they all just looked at me and said, ‘You’re one of those bad Muslims, aren’t you?’ And I just said no, no I’m not” (13). Small aspects of society, such as news reports, posts on social media, or, in Chloe’s case, books, had larger societal impacts that affected people of all ages. Following the incident in her class, Chloe was seen “as a different person [by her classmates]. Before reading the book, I was just a normal child. And then, I turned into an Islamic extremist who hated the world and wanted to kill everybody” (13).
The majority of Muslims living the US have relayed that, following the attacks, it became “more difficult to live in the United States…and also believe the government ‘singles out’ Muslims for increased surveillance and monitoring” (21). Mona Eltahawy, in an article published by The Guardian, conveys her personal post 9/11 experience as a Muslim American by describing the fear her and her family felt in a country whose viewpoint had just shifted. Eltahawy describes that, in the days following the attacks, her and her family “didn’t leave the apartment for two days, worried that [her] sister in law would be attacked for her headscarf”(8). Someone had also attempted to set the mosque in their community on fire, as a form of rejection and political statement, an act that became common in post 9/11 America (8). Eltahawy emphasizes, as do other Muslim immigrants, that the attacks were not representative of her Islam. She stayed in America to fight for the Islam she knew, “to yell Muslims weren't invented on 9/11. Those planes crashing again and again into the towers were the first introduction to Islam and Muslims for too many Americans but we – American Muslims – are sick and tired of explaining. None of those men was an American Muslim and we're done explaining and apologising. Enough” (8). Sabeeha Rehman, an American Muslim, emphasized that 9/11 affected Muslims as much as it affected any other American. The day of the attacks “all of those efforts to build Mosques, Muslim community centers, raising the profile of Islam, getting our children to feel comfortable and confident as Muslims, all smothered in the rubble of the towers” (4). Stigmatization of the Muslim Immigrant by political figures, such as George Bush, further developed the idea that Muslims negatively impacted the United States and contradicting statements by Bush in the weeks following 9/11 further contributed to this. Although Bush made mosque appearances and claimed he did not hold the entire Muslim community responsible for 9/11, following the attacks, he called for “military trials for civilians, secret prisons, the detention of hundreds of Muslim men without charge, the torture and harsh interrogation of detainees, and the invasions of two Muslim majority countries” (8). With the image of the Muslim American painted in a new light, America increasingly became a more dangerous place for Muslims to be, and there was a drastic increase in violence against Muslims (15).
Hate Crimes Against Muslims in the US
Figure 1
As shown in Figure 1 (FBI), hate crimes against Muslims increased significantly in 2001, following September 11th. There was 28 reported hate crimes against Muslims in 2000 compared to 481 reported hate crimes in 2001 (15). In 2002, the number of reported hate crimes decreased again, to between 105-160 reported crimes per year over a span of 12 years, but hate crimes against Muslims have not decreased to pre September 2001 numbers. Hate crimes against Muslims tripled following the 2015 San Bernardino, California shooting, which was perpetrated by followers of radical Islam, and Americans primarily relied on the media for information about the Islamic faith. This greatly impacted American views of Islam, considering over 70% of media coverage on Islam was deemed as negative and focused on ISIS rather than what Muslim Americans were contributing to society (4). A rise in discrimination contributed to Muslims beginning to give up their identity for their own safety. They “americanized their names”, uncovered their heads, and shaved their beards. Relating to Victor Turner’s approach on symbolic anthropology, removal of these key symbols threatened Muslim identity, as major parts of the Muslim faith included names, head covering practices, and facial hair, which were now disappearing due to negative public reactivity (24). A shift in identity and public image of Muslim Americans contributed to the reality that “…the towers fell and the world was never the same again. The horror, the loss the grief, and the pain consumed us…Islamophobia reared its ugly head, and Muslims found themselves encircled by lions”(4).
Recurring Stigma: Trump’s Campaign against Muslims
Since the beginning of his campaign in the 2016 elections for President of the United States, Donald Trump has made his stance on Muslim immigration into the US very clear. His opinions, as portrayed through debates, rallies, news articles, and social media have spread to the public and influenced others to develop similar beliefs, which, consequently, has affected representation of the Muslim Immigrant in the public’s eye. Trump is known for taking to Twitter to express his beliefs, which is an easily accessible platform to reach a large number of people in a matter of seconds. In December of 2015, Trump shared several tweets suggesting Muslim Americans were celebrating the 9/11 terrorist attacks (25). These claims were shared throughout social media thousands of times, promoting the idea that Muslim immigrants were bringing political unrest and were a cause for safety concerns. At a November 21st rally in Birmingham, Alabama, Trump stated that he “watched when the World Trade Center came tumbling down, and [he] watched in Jersey City, New Jersey, where thousands and thousands of people were cheering as that building came down. Thousands of people were cheering” (14). The Washington Post and Associated Press wrote articles with similar accusations, however they also stated that the claims were “unfounded” and there was no evidence, provided by police or otherwise, that confirmed Trump’s claims regarding celebration on US soil by Muslim immigrants following the 9/11 attacks. Although the claims were false, or never proven, the impact of them on Muslim Americans was very much real, and, as Trump rose to presidency, so did violence, stigmas, and stereotypes of Muslim Americans in the United States (4).
Trump also proposed “extreme vetting” for Muslims trying to enter the United States, which includes interrogation about political and religious views in order to “weed out terrorists” (5). Right wing organizations, such as the American Family Association, or AFA, have voiced their support of the Travel Ban and Trump’s stance on Muslim immigration into the United States. AFA stated that Trump was “protecting Americans from Islamic law” and wanted him to “shut down a program…[allowing] children [brought] to the US illegally by their parents…[to] find a path to citizenship”, referencing DACA, the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrival, an act passed under the Obama administration (5). Several individuals and groups have also taken a stance against Trump’s ideas for a change in US policy: William T. Barber, a reverend in North Carolina, stated that comments like those made by Donald Trump regarding Muslim immigration “… are the antithesis of the Bible which declares, ‘Love thy neighbor as yourself’”(18) and that churches have been accepting of refugees for 2000 years and they are intent on “continuing this biblical mission” (18).
Throughout the US 2016 Presidential elections, “Anti-Islamic attitudes resurfaced” (4). All political parties were affected, evident through Saba Ahmed’s, a member of the Republican Muslim Coalition, experience,who received hate mail for wearing a hijab, even though it bore an American flag. A Muslim 6th grader was referred to as “ISIS”, attacked, and almost had her hijab removed. Muslims across the US were shot at, in a violent protest to their presence in the States, with no consideration towards where they were from, what country their loyalty was to, or their circumstances (4).
Travel Ban
Donald Trump introduced the idea of a “Travel Ban” throughout his campaign, and began implementing the proposition only a week after his inauguration into presidency, signing an “executive order to [ ban] citizens from Iraq, Syria, Iran, Libya, Somalia Sudan and Yemen on January 27th, 2017. The ban, with the exception of Syria, where refugees were banned indefinitely, was to last 90 days ( 23). It would affect all citizens, even those who had been in the United States legally with Green Cards or Visas. Following protests at airports across the US, Judge Ann M Donnelly of the New York Federal Court, temporarily halted the ban on the basis that it was a direct violation of “the rights to Due Process and Equal Protection guaranteed by the United States Constitution”( 23). Federal Judges across the United States began handling law suits pertaining to the Travel Ban, and continuously fought to block the Travel Ban. Washington and Minnesota both sued over the Travel Ban, and The American Civil Liberties Union followed a motion against the Trump administration to protect individuals who came to the US directly following implementation of the order (5). Trump defended the order with the slogan “Make America Safe Again”, although there is no real evidence to back up the statement that Muslim Immigrants pose a threat to the US. In 2015, the US saw 350 mass shootings, 99% of which were carried out by non-muslims, however, the term “terrorist” was never used to describe non-muslims who targeted victims of their respective shootings, even if it was on the basis of religion, sexuality, race, or gender (4). Since World War II the “US has been open to people fleeing political and religious persecution”, as refugees often are, and the ban could potentially open the US to more threats, considering it will also bar US allies who are moderate Muslims, some of which are helping to fight ISIS and resist radicalization and extremism (5). Barry W. Lynn of Americans United delivered a statement saying, “he [Trump] has abandoned our nation’s commitment to religious freedom, and he’s turning away those seeking safe harbor and a better life” (5). Since Trump’s proposal of the Travel Ban there has been an increase in violence, islamophobia, and derogatory comments directed towards Muslims similar to that which occurred directly following the September 11th attacks (4).
Muslim Experience Following Travel Ban
Salim Jaffer, a gastroenterologist who moved to the US when he was fourteen, (22) was expelled from Uganda in 1972 but says he has “never felt danger until now”, referencing Trump’s rise to presidency (6). Some people believe that Muslim neighborhoods should be heavily patrolled as a preventative method to radicalization (6). Propositions such as this one further contribute to ideologies surrounding Muslim belief, which, in turn, leads to reactions that may be violent. Yasir Gadhi, a participant in the Huffington Post’s, “What it means to be Muslim in America” describes his struggle with finding a balance between his commitment to Islam, and his identity overall, while also coming to terms with stereotypes and negativity surrounding Muslims in America that have been magnified throughout the 2016 US elections, portrayal of the Muslim immigrant in the news, social media references, and debates/discussion surrounding Muslim immigration by political figures in debates, campaigns, rallies, and speeches. Widespread misrepresentation has vastly affected the Muslim experience. Gadhi conveyed in his interview with Huffington Post that he feels forced to “pray in abandoned nooks in airports so he doesn’t face negative reactions”(9). Others who have been open about their religion in public have also openly faced repercussions of the expression of their first amendment right. Similar to directly post 9/11 America, hate crimes against Muslims significantly increased since Trump became President (16). After Trump’s announcement of the Travel Ban in 2015 as a basis for his campaign, hate crimes against Muslims rose by 67 percent (17). In the first half of 2017, hate crimes rose by 91% compared to the same period in 2016 (16). “The most common form of Islamophobia from April to June this year involved harassment, defined by CAIR as non-violent or non- threatening incidents. The second was hate crimes, involving physical violence or property damage” (16). Acts of Islamophobia are now at their highest since September 11th, and some believe this is due to Trump’s openness towards rejecting Islam, including comments such as “Islam hates us”, “monitoring mosques”, and travel bans (12). Yasir Qadhi, a Muslim scholar living in Tennessee, voiced his fear following the election: “…all of us are genuinely worried. I fear for the safety of my wife in hijab; of my children in the streets…” (12). Qadhi’s fear is not unfounded. The rise in hate crimes following Trump’s win constituted several incidents involving harassment or violence against Muslims. A student wearing a hijab at San Diego State University was robbed by two men making comments about Muslims and Trump. There has “been a spike in hate crimes including attacks on women wearing hijabs and racist graffiti- and suicide prevention hotlines were receiving high numbers of calls” (20). Muslim women stopped wearing hijabs for the sole purpose of avoiding racist remarks or attacks, and Muslim identity was threatened (20). Similar to Trump, Muslim activists also took to Twitter to reach a larger platform and convey their fears in the new presidency. Directly following Trump’s win on November 8th, 2016, Blair Imani, founder of Equality for Her and Campaign leader at Do Something wrote on Twitter: “I’m scared today will be the last day I felt somewhat safe wearing my hijab”(25).
Conclusion
As shown in the investigation, the Muslim experience in the United States has changed drastically throughout the past 17 years. Before 9/11, the US was seen as a country of safety, acceptance,religious freedom, and opportunity for Muslim immigrants. However, following the attacks on 9/11, there was an increase in hate crimes directed towards Muslim Americans and several instances involving discrimination, violence, Islamophobia, and other expressions of non acceptance of the Muslim immigrant by other US citizens, political figures, and non- Muslims who felt threatened or affected by the presence of believers in Islam in the United States. Following Trump’s presidential campaign and January 20th, 2017 inauguration as President of the United States, similar attitudes to those that arose post 9/11 towards Muslim Immigrants occurred again, and was openly condoned by Trump via debates, social media, press releases, and policies, which contributed to the 67%-91% spike in hate crimes during his campaign and after he was officially elected. Trump attempted to gain social and cultural capital through social media outlets, such as Twitter. Establishing social and cultural capital contributed to Trump’s win, as some individuals in society saw it as a way to appeal to what they perceived to be factual, rather than emotional reasoning. Ultimately, the travel ban limited physical and societal agency and changed the dynamic of the US drastically to reconform to post 9/11 attitudes towards Muslims in the United States.
WORD COUNT: 4000
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