Sal Ioivno `
The Americas on the Eve of Invasion
Nomadic tribes established the Toltec in central Mexico using military and sacrificial traditions
Toltec achievements were combined with culture of Teotihuacan by the successors of the Toltecs
Toltecs used many traditions from agricultural peoples and combined them with military ethics portrayed through their art
Teotihuacan fell, so nomads invaded their lands and those of the Mayans for the riches and easy invasion
Toltec cultural influence spread in all directions through America through trade, political power, and migration
Cities in Yucatan were captured by Toltecs and future Mesoamerican or Mayan rulers were under Toltec influence
Toltecs spread north by obsidian and turquoise trade, empire extended from Tula (capital) to lands as far as Guatemala
The Aztecs used their military powers to control the feudal city-states of sedentary people and migrants around the chain of basin lakes in the valley of Mexico
Collapse of Toltecs moved the cultural and population center to basin lakes in valley of Mexico provided an aquatic environment with many towns, where the towns battled for control
People living on lakes were mostly migrants or sedentary farmers, cities of lake engaged in inter-marrying, competing military powers and alliances (like Medieval Europe), used connections to Toltec culture to gain trust
Aztecs founded Tenochtitlan for religious reasons on Lake Texcoco, engaged in the regional politics of allies and mercenaries to make the city rich, then allianced with the other most powerful cities (the alliance heavily favored Aztecs in resource exchange and land)
Aztec society evolved through expansion into a society where the political and religious authority of the ruler combined with human sacrifice and conquest
Military supplied war captives for human sacrifices, some lands remained unconquered so that frequent invasions could repeatedly gain captives
Aztec society changed from clans to tightly organized under one ruler of civil power and a representation of the gods on earth
People living in Aztec land had to pay tributed, give up territory, and join the Aztec army sometimes
The elaborate pantheon of Aztec gods used many aspects of traditional Mesoamerican beliefs organized into 3 categories while being developed with the religious symbolism of life due to obligation of Aztecs to worship the gods and the unity the Mesoamerican religion provided.
There were many yearly ceremonies, celebrations, and festivals for the gods, the three cults were gods of fertility and agriculture, the creator gods, and war plus sacrifice
Each god had a female form to show duality, different forms, representations of jobs or cities, finally each god also had five aspects linked to cardinal directions
Aztecs produced many religious and spiritual questions, religion was based on diverse mythology with relationships of gods to people and the religious symbolism seen in everyday life
The Aztecs amplified the use of human sacrifice in militarism for religious “conviction” and political tactics
Aztecs worshipped old Toltec gods, but worshipped their own god Huitzilopochtli more, who was believed to be a warrior to defend against the night, human sacrifice gave the god strength
The temple of Tenochtitlan was built for Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc (god of rain), uniting the Mesoamerican gods with the Aztecs
Different types of sacrifice and the frequency increased under the Aztecs, produced a symbolic side, not known how much sacrifice was for religious beliefs or political tactics/control
Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztecs was organized into groups of palaces, markets, common houses, and parks to produce a thriving commercial center
Central zone of palaces and temples, surrounded by residential districts, noble houses, and markets
Had a population of 150,000, larger than European capitals, large market allowed it to have such as thriving trade, also had many gardens for entertainment, kin groups of city wards maintained the temples
City was located on a lake with four connections to the shore and had canals for canoe transport
The Aztecs used agricultural methods suited to the population of the lake and distributing of goods from markets and conquered lands to feed the people due to the need of nobility to feed the people.
Around and on the lake, chinampas, beds of weeds and earth placed in cane frames to serve as floating islands provided high crop yield per year with low water levels
Markets on a calendar cycle on Aztec communities exchanged a variety of goods through barter, most controlled by inspectors, but the great market controlled by merchant class that engaged in long distance trade
Aztecs collected payment from conquered lands to feed the people, provided basic forms of food along with peasant production
As the Aztec Empire expanded, a new class of nobles developed from lineage of the calpulli clans to control militaristic and religious functions due to the claim for local power of the richer calpulli families.
Calpulli were residential groupings combining neighbors, allies, and people who needed calpulli support, had power to distribute land, organize armies, run education and religion
Everyone of status used to belong to a calpulli, but expansion lead to new class of nobles came from powerful calpulli families to inherit land and high-ranking jobs
Nobles came to rule the military and religion, military became more symbolic with sacrificial ceremonies, death by taking enemies for sacrifice was noble way to ensure heaven
As Aztecs kept growing, more stratification occurred with the middle-class and land-workers with class distinctions seen in everyday life
Class distinctions seen everyday were types of clothing, hairstyles and uniforms, egalitarian rules from older Aztecs disappeared as royal family gained power
Nobles left families and got land, caused new worker class to emerge for nobles’ land, workers didn’t own land and were forced to work unlike commoners on calpulli estates
Middle-class of artisans, scribes, and healers were important in city-life, merchants of long-distance trade made a calpulli within themselves
The limited agricultural technology of the Aztecs caused the time-consuming process of preparing basic household food by women causing limited social development due to the obligation of women to field and household cooking duties.
Peasant women worked fields, most important role was child-raising and domestic chores, Aztec women could inherit property, but economical and political rights were limited
Women needed 6 hours a day to grind corn to prepare basic household food, limited technology of mills caused lots of wasted time on food preparation
Central Mexico ruled by the Aztecs had population of over 20 million (not including Mayan regions), Aztecs controlled lots of people through fear, need for lots of agricultural work
Aztec civilization preserved and continued the traditions of older Mesoamericans
City-states conquered by the Aztecs were left to keep their old traditions as long as they payed tribute, local rulers of conquered lands kept their position
Aztecs were able to push down revolts because of the political domination of the Aztecs, weaknesses of Aztecs were growing nobles and imposed fear on subjects
Aztecs continued Mesoamerican culture from classical period, some traditions were reused and combined into political and social cultures of the Aztecs
The newly developed Aztec nobility functioned with the absolute ruler in Tenochtitlan with great wealth and religious significance due the nobility using their power in Aztec society.
Each city-state ruled by an elected speaker, Great Speaker in capital thought of as god with much wealth, elaborate court rituals, all visitors couldn’t look him in the eye
Rulers of surrounding cities had a voice in the government but most power stayed with main ruler and his advisor
Aztec expansion caused nobility to emerge, installed military cult virtues in the religion to gain tribute from lands and to motivate military conquests for sacrifices
The Incas originated from the Andean highlands as a group of clans to go on a series of military conquests on the western coast of South America to bring millions of diverse people under their rule due to the desire of Incas to expand their territory.
South Andean Highlands, little urban centers, weak politics after fall of Tihuanaco, several language related clans, Pachacuti first leader
Inca armies went on conquests through military alliances plus campaigns, defeated north coast kingdom Chimor (Topac Yupanqui), allowed empire to extend to south Ecuador
Huayna Capac stopped rebellions on frontiers and after his death empire was from Colombia to north Argentina, ruled 9-13 million people
Due to the desire of Incas to gain land and riches for deceased rulers, a cycle of conquest developed to keep up with the Inca ancestral beliefs.
Dead rulers were mummified, used as oracles to speak with gods, paraded in public, and offered goods
Incas used royal inheritance, political power and titles of a ruler went to his heir, but palaces, wealth, and lands went to any male descendants to be used for dead mummy
Every Inca ruler consequently needed to gain land to ensure a place in the ancestral cult, so a cycle of continuous conquest arose
Religious beliefs of the Incas were infused to aspects of social and political life due to the devoutness of Incas into performing and maintaining religious traditions.
Incas thought sun was most important god, built the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco, mummies of past Incas kept in the temple because rulers were believed to be “sun on earth”
Animism played big role in state religion,Mountains, stones, rivers, caves, tombs, and temples were huacas, holy shrines, maintained by certain ayllus
Priests prepared food and clothes for sacrifices in temple, also in charge of celebrations and divinations that the state depended on
The Incas collected tribute from conquered lands in resources and labor to allow local autonomy through a system of hierarchical governors due to the Incas need to expand and gain wealth in their lands.
Empire divided into four regions ruled by governors, regions split again, curacas (local rulers) kept their positions and Incas exempt them from paying tribute and gave them workers in exchange for loyalty
Conquered people placed into Inca army and given resources from conquests, state conducted many public works (irrigation) , in return common people gave loyalty and tribute, conquered lands given to religious, state, and common purposes
Communities alternated working on state and religious buildings (process called mita), Incas did not ask for tribute “in kind”, put labor on lands
Women in Inca society had some social and religious equality to men, but due to the militaristic virtues of the Incas, men remained with more power
Parallel descent, women passed rights to daughters, men to sons, women worked in fields as well as households, men in fields
Women might have been ayllus leaders, but the military virtues of the Incas promoted a patriarchal society, gender hierarchy similar to power of Inca state over the people
Women had more compassion for certain gods of fertility, connection seen in rituals, Inca’s wife represented imperial authority to women
The Incas had exceptional cultural achievements in road systems, irrigation, and architecture due to the need of the Incas to transport and spread goods across their wide empire.
Built agricultural terraces on mountains with irrigation systems to bring water to the crops
2500 miles of road traversed the empire, including rope bridges to cross cliffs and gorges
Extravagant Inca building were made of fitted stones without masonry, caused by accurate stone-cutting
The Incas developed a variety of different cultural practices than Eurasia due to the use of culture from previous Andeans and the conquered people ruled by the Incas.
Incas had best metalwork in America, gold and silver work with copper and bronze for tools, quality cloth and pottery produced by artisans
No system of writing, system of knotted strings (quipu) used to keep track of censuses and financial records
Population divided into decimal units so that military enlists, populus, and other numbers could be calculated
The Incas and the Aztecs were similar in the political setup/virtues, social structure, and economic foundation of their empires due to building off of previous civilizations.
Both used imperial and military organization in success, allowed diverse ethnic groups to keep their culture and local rulers as long as tribute was paid
Used extensive agriculture run by the state to obtain a surplus to distribute to social classes within communities, expanded by taking labor and tribute from agricultural towns
Family related communities (ayllu and calpulli) were changed because of the rise of a nobility that became government workers
Despite having a few cultural differences, the Incas and the Aztecs are seen as variants of patterns with similarities due to the basic cultural processes of the Andes and Mexico.
Differences in important of market trade, metallurgy, writing, and social hierarchy, but both empires seen as having similar patterns, mainly agriculture
Both empires shared a lot with each other, plus them being isolated gave them vulnerability and uniqueness, yet there and previous Mesoamerican culture still survived European invasions
Basic similarities in differences between empires are social structure and cosmology
The diversity of Ancient America through multiple changes in states of culture and complexity provides a unique exception to the “old-world” examples of civilization due to the Indian’s path of development in isolation.
Indian society seen as levels of cultural complexity, such as the Incas having similarities with Amazon tribes ( div. Of villages into 2 groups with mutual obligations)
Old world idea of social complexity being dependant upon agricultural society disproved by Indian hunter-foragers of north-west coast having developed hierarchies
Other idea of water control being starting point for political authority and state development disproved by Indians in Colorado who had irrigation but did have developed politics
Due to the diversity of native cultures in North America, those societies had significant cultural differences to Eurasian societies.
By 1500 there were 200 different languages spoken in North america, along with cultures suited to the environment, like Anasazi moving to adobe pueblos along Rio Grande
Most Indian communities were family-based, material wealth mostly disregarded, resources were emphasized (unlike Eurasia)
Women could have important political and social jobs, mostly agricultural jobs
Europeans were able to invade the weak Incas and Aztecs who had little technology
First Europeans in Americas were shocked at the lack of development within tribes but shocked by achievements of Incas and Aztecs
American societies placed great significance on religion on the relationship between people and the society
Americans didn’t have plows, wheels, developed metal tools, little technology led to collapse
A lack of contact with Afro-Eurasia caused a lack of development in America
Ironworking, the wheel, domesticated animals, and immunity to Afro-Eurasian diseases all did not reach the Americas
Many incredible political, social, and economical achievements of American societies, noticeably the ability to rule dense populations
The lack of Afro-Eurasian developments in Mesoamerican society only mattered when Europeans invaded, not before