Stalking is defined as “the unwanted, harassing, and threatening behavior that occurs repeatedly” (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.39). With stalking, several behaviors are typically bunched together to create an illegal action that is only considered illegal when one considers the behaviors to be threatening or harassing. Stalking is often seen as being at places where the person stalked may be, leaving gifts for one, or continually communicating with the person using technology or social media to communicate with the person undesirably. The repeated behaviors often stress a victim to extreme physical and psychological effects. Consequences of the behaviors include nausea, loss of appetite, sleep deprivation, paranoia, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.39).
Intimate Partner Violence – IPV, similar to that of stalking, is defined to be “the physical, sexual, and psychological abuse of an intimate partner” (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.39). Unwanted harassing, frightening and threatening behavior characterize both crimes of IPV and stalking qualities. Both illegal behaviors occur over long periods of time and typically occur repeatedly. However, IPV may only occur on a single occasion and stalking must occur on several, research has shown both are repetitious in their abuse (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.39).
Victims of a crime, specifically stalking victims often adopt attitudes and manners favorable to victimization which model behaviors to increase the propensity to be victimized. Many see that victimization is only contingent upon “the opportunity to be victimized” which is deemed true when individuals adopt positive beliefs of victimization and proactively associate oneself with those who have been victimized (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.42). Implications within “victim blaming” aim to identify and eliminate all factor associated with victimization (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.42).
The current study is examining stalking empirically for both the perpetration of stalking and the victimization of stalking. This study is the first to examine stalking victimization through the framework of the social learning theory. Due to stalking behaviors creating dangerous and unpleasant situations/consequences for victims, the study is important in order to examine the correlation between individuals that are stalking perpetrators and those that are victims (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.40). Using the social learning theory to predict stalking victimization allows for theoretical advancement and practical policy implications to increase in importance.
The sample used for this study was a random set of 15,000 college students within a population of over 50,700 students attending a southeastern university (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.42). All students were emailed invitations to participate in the web-based survey in regards to crime and violence in the area and on campus. Within the invitations, a 19% response came from 2,783 students who participated in the survey voluntarily (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.42). The rate is low; however, it is consistent and relevant to other web-based research without incentives. The sample demographics also represented the population evenly whereas 58% of the respondents were female and 76% were White; compared to a population of 53% female and 65% White (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.42).
The measures tested in the study include stalking perpetration and victimization, social learning variables, and demographic variables. Within stalking perpetration and victimization, respondents were to answer a set of questions that measured victimization as well as respond to a set measuring perpetration. All respondents were presented with the definition which emphasized the harassing behavior that is frightening, intrusive and occurs repeatedly. Other research suggests using “stalking” within a study often receives biased responses yet, others found it did not influence responses (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.41). After receiving the definition, items were presented to the respondents of stalking victimization then stalking perpetration. Each respondent was able to report each episode separately in order for the analysis of the current study to exclusively only examine the victimization/perpetration of the first episode. This was allowed based on data given that few reported multiple episodes with only 10.57% reporting a second stalker and 7.2% reporting a second victim (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.43). As well as less than 3% reporting a third stalker or third victim.
Within measures of social learning, variables were used in order to reflect the biggest sections of the theory outlined by Akers (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.43). Items used were to utilize the main components using definitions to stalking perpetration and victimization. As well as different reinforcement and associations. A respondent’s response to a friend stalking someone expressed their attitudes positive or negative toward the behavior. Similarly for victimization, revealed one's sympathy towards a victim. Data found that orders used to measure social learning theory components of victimization and perpetration both performed evenly in a similar manner (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.43). Demographic variables included sex, race, Hispanic ethnicity, sexual orientation, and age (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.43).
Results of the study revealed that the sample of the study as described above was predominantly female with 1,618 respondents, Whites were to be 2,100 surveyors, and non-Hispanics at 87.4% of the sample as well as 95.5% to be heterosexual (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.43). The respondents mean age was 22.8 years of the entire study. Stalking victimization was also reported much more often than stalking perpetration at a rate of 25.9% compared to only a rate of 5.79% (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.43). Most of the sample reported scores for social learning components with differential reinforcement of perpetration a score of 3.78 in which a 4 samples the most negative reactions to perpetration and reinforcement of victimization a 1.58 where 1 samples friends reacting very sympathetically to victimization (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p. 43). Association of stalking in which friends would engage in stalking behaviors was also sampled to result in 1.12 where 1 was no friends would engage in illegal behaviors (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p. 43). The lack of difference in responses from respondents in the items measured of the independent variable and skewed dependent variable to produce a conservatively predicted study of the theory.
Stalking perpetrators were found much more likely to report peers who were stalking perpetrators, known as differential peer association as well as react less negatively to friends who engaged in behaviors and believed stalking is okay in certain situations (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p.44). Per the study, stalking perpetration was found to be a social idea that involves the association of peers and favorable definitions of stalking. Found to be significantly associated with stalking victimization were sex, age, and sexual orientation; i.e., females, older individuals, and non-heterosexuals were the most likely to be a stalking victim (Fox, Nobles, & Akers, 2011, p. 44). The study found that there is also a positive association between victimization and differential reinforcement. Revealing that many victims are more likely to report knowing peers who are victims and believe that their friends would react to victimization with less sympathy. Both victimization and perpetration were found to be social related processes and involves association, peers, and reinforcement.
From the study, I believe that stalking is a social mannerism of society and occurs due to peer-related processes, as well as are functions of social learning. I also found it very interesting that most significantly more females are likely to be stalking perpetrators seeing as though most stalking victims are also females. I think the study created an interesting position of predicting the relationships of victims and perpetrators based on the social learning theory. I also find it mind-boggling that most responses, attitudes, and behaviors are learned and reinforced through the interaction of one’s peers. Overall I found and understood that social learning is one of the most important ideas to predicting stalking perpetration and victimization in terms to understand theories and explanations behind stalking.