Blood Technology Research Assignment:
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are used:
Pulse Oximeters:
These are used more in hospitals, for patients in hospital for surgery. It is operated by placing a clip on the finger or earlobe and connected to a monitor that shows the pulse rate and oxygen saturation level. These are particularly beneficial because they are non-invasive, meaning they do not harm the patient, and are quite accurate.
Pulse oximeters work through the detection of the red and infrared light absorption of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin. Oxygenated blood absorbs more infrared light and allows more red light to pass through. Pulse oximeters emit light with both red and infrared LED’s, through points on the body of good blood flow and are reasonably translucent.
Arterial Blood Gas Machine (ABG):
The main use of ABG analysis is to assess the patients respiratory status, and for the study of lung disease and under conditions of poor gaseous exchange. It can also measure the levels of pH and electrolyte levels, presenting an idea about the efficiency of the kidneys, i.e the ability of the kidneys to move oxygen into and carbon dioxide out of the blood. The ABG analysis also measures the acid-base level in the blood of people who have heart or kidney failure.
Arterial blood gas machines involve removing blood from an artery and performing a blood test, then a computer analyses the chemical components of the blood. This is more beneficial due to the accuracy and detail it provides. The test measures the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide, pH, bicarbonate and oxygen content and saturation.
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify and describe the products extracted from donated blood and the uses of these products:
These are separated into two main categories, according to their shelf life:
Labile Products: Short shelf life, must be transported under specific, refrigerated conditions.
Red Blood Cells (RBC): RBC’s are used because of haemoglobin’s ability to give oxygen to the tissues and bring back carbon dioxide to the lungs. These RBC’s are used mainly for people with anaemia (low haemoglobin levels), and after patients have had surgery of have experienced blood loss.
Platelets: Platelets stop the bleeding of wounds by clotting and clumping together. This is beneficial for people who have leukaemia, bone marrow failure (where platelets are produced), and following a transplant of chemotherapy.
Plasma: Plasma is mostly water, makes up 55% of total blood volume, and contains dissolved proteins, carrying all blood cells and their components. Plasma can be used in blood transfusions, and/or separated out into its many individual proteins which are used to make medicines.
Cryoprecipitate: Cryoprecipitate is made by thawing frozen plasma between 1 – 6°C, then the insoluble precipitate is collected and refrozen. This is used for people who have trouble controlling bleeding and people who need a large number of blood components at one time, because it contains blood clotting proteins such as fibrinogen, factor VIII (protein missing in people with haemophilia), factor XIII, and von Willebrand factor (helping to keep the platelets together).
Stable Products: Long shelf life, produced by fractioning the different protein components from plasma or by recombinant (genetic) manufacturing methods.
Blood Clotting Factors: These are proteins that work together in a series of chemical reactions called the clotting process, to stop bleeding. There are 13 factors. These are used to treat people who have problems with diseases where the clotting of blood doesn’t occur properly, or in cases of haemophilia.
Immunoglobulins: Also known as antibodies, immunoglobulins are used by the immune system to get neutralise pathogens and such as harmful bacteria and viruses. These are used for people with autoimmune disorders and who need replacement of antibodies.
Albumin: Albumin is a protein that transports substances such as hormones and vitamins throughout the body, and also keeps fluid from seeking out of blood vessels. Albumin is beneficial because of its ability to increase the volume of the blood in the blood vessels by drawing fluid from the body into the blood vessels. It is useful when there is a lack of oxygen in the tissues, e.g shock, and can also replace low blood protein.
Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed:
The production of artificial blood was first intended to overcome the problems associated with transfused blood, such as the cross matching of blood types, the short shelf life of only a few weeks, and the difficulty of transporting this blood to where it was needed.
In the mid 1960’s, Dr Leland Clark discovered the oxygen carrying capacity of perfluorocarbons.
Until the 1980’s, artificial blood research continued slowly and with poor results. During the 1980’s, active research was needed to combat the HIV breakout in patients who had been given blood transfusions.
The research into blood has been far more specific in recent times, for example that it must be able to be stored for long periods, does not need to be cross matched for blood types, be produced in large quantities, safe, does not trigger an immune response, and continues to circulate in the body normally.
Currently, there is no safe and effective artificial blood product in Australia or the United States. The AIDS crisis in South Africa has been a major driving force for the use of artificial blood in patients. Haemopure is produced from stabilised cattle haemoglobin, having a shelf life of 36 months and can be stored at around 25°C. Haemopure is around 1000 times smaller than a red blood cell, allowing it to pass through partially blocked arteries, useful in heart surgery. Polyheme, is produced from modified haemoglobin from human RBC’s and cam deliver oxygen up to 3 times more efficiently than red blood cells
Such research is needed because of its ability to help save lives and compared to blood transfusions, artificial blood can: be sterilised, be stored for long periods of time, be used without blood cross matching, be used without risk of infection, and these perfluorocarbons are relatively cheap to produce.
In relation to the topic of this assignment:
Discuss how increases in our understanding in biology have led to the development of useful technologies and systems
Identify possible future directions of biological research
No development of immune defence or clotting of blood.
Bibliography:
Chidrawi, G. (2010). HSC Course: Biology in Focus. Australia: Cengage Learning Australia.
Sarkar, S. (2008). Artificial Blood. Bethesda: National Centre for Biotechnology Information, US National Library of Medicine. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2738310/ [Accessed 14 November 2017]
Scheinfeld, N. (2017). Intravenous Immunoglobin [Internet]. Medscape. Available from: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/210367-overview [Accessed 13 November 2017]
(2002). Principles of Pulse Oximetry Technology [Internet]. oximetry.org. Available from: http://www.oximeter.org/pulseox/principles.htm [Accessed 12 November 2017]
(2017). Cryoprecipitate [Internet]. Australian Red Cross Blood Service. Available from: https://mytransfusion.com.au/types-transfusion/cryoprecipitate [Accessed 13 November 2017]
Arterial Blood Gases [Internet]. Atlanta: WebMD. Available from: https://www.webmd.com/lung/arterial-blood-gases#1 [Accessed 12 November 2017]
Blood Components [Internet]. NHS Blood and Transplant. Available from: https://www.blood.co.uk/why-give-blood/how-blood-is-used/blood-components/ [Accessed 13 November 2017]