A Literature Study of the Development of Mathematical Abilities as They Relate to Gender Identity
There is a clear and persistent gap in involvement in advanced mathematics based course work, and success on mathematics achievement tests, between females and males in the United States (Carr, Jessup & Fuller, 1999). In psychological studies that explored gender identity, math-gender stereotypes and math self-concept (eg. Cvencek, Meltzoff & Greenwald, 20ll) girls and women, explicitly and implicitly indicate that gender stereotypes have reinforced that idea that men and boys and better at math, and highlight a cognitive association between the male gender and math. This psychological framework plays out in the concrete (modeling, using manipulatives, etc) approach female students (as young as first grade) take to solving math problems (Fenema et al.1998), the overt, covert and retrieval strategies they use in the classroom, and the way in which they respond to the pedagogical guidance they receive from teachers, peers and family members (Carr et al., 1997; Carr et al. 1999). Research confirms that there are key differences in how boys and girls in the United States view themselves as mathematicians (e.g. Cvencek et al., 20ll; Cvencek et al., 2015), how they approach math (e.g. Carr & Jessup 1997; Carr et al., 1999; Fennema et al, 1998) and how these conceptions and approaches influence their performance in these areas.
In a study of 247 American elementary school students between the ages of 6 and 10, researchers gauged student’s conception of gender identity, math gender stereotypes and math self-concept. Through interviews and activities, using implicit and explicit cues, researchers analyzed individual feedback to a variety of math related investigation. Results of the study indicate, with statistical significance, that in implicit measures, boys identify me with boy more strongly than girls, they associate math with their own gender more strongly than girls, and that they identify math with me more strongly than their female counterparts. Follow up research within the same school (this time of 1st and 2nd grade students) revealed implicit indications of gender identity development, but less concrete development of math gender identity and math self-concept, leading to questions regarding the age at which gender conceptions in mathematics emerge (Cvencek et al. 2011).
Cvencek et al. replicated the main concepts of their 2011 study in Singapore in 2017, with the addition of standardized test scores as a data point for comparison. Singapore was chosen because it represents a potential dichotomy. In Singapore, there is no statistically significant difference between the standardized test scores of boys and girls in grades 1-5. The authors of the study posed the same implicit and explicit math inquiry to 299 students (ages 7-11) to determine if, despite equal performance on standardized tests, gender based differences in math self-concept, and math gender stereotypes were still observable. The study indicated that for boys an implicit math gender stereotype translated into higher math self-concept, whereas for girls implicit understanding of math gender stereotypes translated into lower math self-concept. Interestingly, the study also found a link between implicit math self-concept and higher standardized test scores (Cvencek et al., 2017).
Studies not only indicate the manner in which women and girls view themselves in relation to math, but explore the mathematical strategies of females as compared to their male counterparts, alongside differences in pedagogical instruction at the hands of parents and teachers related to gender. In a 1997 study, Carr & Jesup endeavored to understand the mathematical strategies of girls and boys, and the relationship of these strategies to social and metacognitive influences. The authors studied 58 1st graders, interviewing students throughout a school year to study development of mathematical strategies over time. Students answers and approaches to addition and subtraction problems were examined, through questioning related to metacognition, and the observations of overt, covert and retrieval problem solving strategies individually, and compared to the use of overt covert and retrieval strategies in peer groups. Prior research had indicated that girls are more like to use concrete or rote strategies, while boys are more likely to experiment with strategies and demonstrate thinking that reflects understanding of place value and number sense instead of memorization (Fenema et al., 1998). Carr & Jessup’s study indicated that boys used retrieval as their main strategy, whereas girls, afraid of getting a problem wrong, were most likely to exhibit overt strategies such as counting. Explorations of metacognition indicated however, that boys did not demonstrate any significant achievement in metacognitive abilities when compared to girls, rather their use of retrieval strategies was more likely related to risk taking behavior. The study also revealed that in group work, girls were more likely to follow the lead of their male peers, using retrieval strategies (Carr & Jessup, 1997).
Based on the results of their 1997 study, Carr & Jessup expanded their research to explore the influence of teacher and parent instruction on the mathematic strategies and metacognition of girls and boys. The method of much of the research, involving 92 1st graders from 23 classroms, was the same, however, instead of observing students strategies in peer groups, participants were asked to consider how their teachers and parents viewed specific mathematical strategies. As a follow up, teachers and parents were asked to self-report their actions during mathematics instruction. The results of the study reiterate those of the previous study, indicating that girls more correctly use overt strategies in mathematics as they progress through first grade, whereas boys are more likely to use retrieval strategies correctly. The study notes that instruction intentionally, or unintentionally benefits boys, as parents and teachers directed boys to strategies in which they could be successful, where as it directed girls away from the strategies they most commonly felt comfortable using. The authors assert that more research must be done to understand why adult intervention and teaching does not seem to be beneficial to girls in elementary school (Carr & Jessup, 1999).
In their 1998 study, Fennema et al. explored the mathematical strategies of girls and boys from a different perspective, examining the ways in which young children adopt conventional or untaught strategies for approaching problems. In a study of 82, 1st through 3rd graders, computational strategies were examined. The research found that girls use the concrete modeling strategies or rote procedures they are taught, whereas boys are more willing to use abstract strategies that reflect understanding of concepts. Additionally, boys were shown to exhibit more flexibility in problem solving (Fenema et al. 1998).
Both psychological and mathematical research indicate statistically significant difference in how boys and girls view themselves in relation to mathematics as well as is a correlation between that mathematical self-view with a willingness to take risks in mathematics, and achievement in the field (e.g. Cvencek et al., 2011 and Cvencek et al., 2017). Future studies could be done to more clearly understand the age at which students develop a mathematical self-identity or a gender math identity, as a means of interrupting/promoting this development. While a gender gap is said to be narrowing in mathematics, mathematics instruction and strategies used by elementary school students in mathematics, highlights the failure of our education system to promote success in the field, for all children.
References
Carr, Martha, Jessup, Donna L., & Fuller, Diana. (1999). Gender Differences in First-Grade Mathematics Strategy Use: Parent and Teacher Contributions. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30(1), 20-46.
Carr, M., Jessup, D., & Pressley, G. Michael. (1997). Gender Differences in First-Grade Mathematics Strategy Use: Social and Metacognitive Influences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(2), 318-328.
Cvencek, D., Kapur, M., & Meltzoff, A. (2015). Math achievement, stereotypes, and math self-concepts among elementary-school students in Singapore. Learning and Instruction, 39, 1.
Cvencek, Dario, Meltzoff, Andrew N., & Greenwald, Anthony G. (2011). Math-Gender Stereotypes in Elementary School Children. Child Development, 82(3), 766-779.
Fennema, E., Carpenter, T., Jacobs, V., Franke, M., & Levi, L. (1998). A Longitudinal Study of Gender Differences in Young Children’s Mathematical Thinking. Educational Researcher,27(5), 6-11.