When one thinks of suicide, they believe it is an outcome of a major psychiatric illness, a family history of suicide, substance abuse, significant loss in a person’s life, or unbearable emotional or physical pain. Killing oneself is considered a sin in many religions and not within social norms. French sociologist, Emile Durkheim, applied his ideas to the sociological study of suicide. He explains the cause as a “social fact” rather than those common explanations for suicide. Durkheim hypothesized that the social norms of particular groups generate variations in group suicide rates. Durkheim explains by plotting social integration on the y-axis and social regulation on the x-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system. He believes going too far on either direction is an imbalance of some important factor of a “normal” life. His theory broke down suicide into four different types: egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic. In this paper, I will be discussing each type.
Emile Durkheim’s theory of suicide consists of a Cartesian coordinate. On the x-axis lies social integration, how well you are integrated into your social group or community. On the y-axis lies social regulation, the number of rules guiding your daily life and, more specifically, what you can reasonably expect from the world on a day-to-day basis. When you drop down low to the y-axis, you are in the direction of egoistic suicide.
Egoistic suicide is a result of not being well integrated to your social group. This type of suicide is committed by people who are not strongly supported by membership in a cohesive social group. Durkheim argues that detachment from society results in detachment from life because society gives meaning to life. The person would feel hopeless, as if they were insignificant to their society. Victims of egoistic suicide are often characterized by deep-meditation and self-examination, overthinkers. Egoistic suicide is when one determines that they no longer find a reason to exist in life.
Unmarried men are an example of this concept. They are less integrated in society compared to married men. Marriage is a universal social concept in every society. Growing up one is taught to go to school, get a job, get married, and start a family. It is the common goal and social expectation in life. When one does not meet this expectation, they feel left out and not apart of social norms. Durkheim discovered that unmarried people, particularly men, had less of a connection to stable social norms and goals. Being alone resulted in feelings of loneliness and dissatisfaction with their life. Unmarried people would feel as if they failed to reach an important goal and expectation. As a result, they committed suicide at higher rates than married people.
Although most religions prohibit suicide, Durkheim found that Protestants had higher suicide rates than Catholics. The Protestant society had low levels of social integration, which led to egoistic suicide. Protestantism is an undertake on individualism; a social theory favoring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control. When Martin Luther challenged the authority of the Catholic clergy, it led to no elaborate church hierarchy for the Protestants. Protestants are encouraged to maintain a direct personal relationship with God. When the individual’s relationship with the church changed, a feeling of no sense of community arose. Thus, putting the protestants low on the y-axis of social integration and leading to egoistic suicide.
When you go up high on the y-axis, one will find themselves in the direction of altruistic suicide. It occurs when one experiences too much social integration. It is marked by cultural approval and benefit the social order. An individual might commit altruistic suicide due to a group being such a dominant part of one’s life that he or she feels meaningless. Victims of this suicide have excessive social attachment and fear of letting their peers down. They care too much about what their society thinks of them and do not want to let them down. Altruists have the social pressure of killing oneself for the benefit of others and their community.
An example of altruistic suicide is Hindu widows in some castes and regions of India. Before the sixteenth century, in their society, the widow was expected to throw herself on her husband’s funeral pyre to prove their devotion. The women were socially pressured into committing this act and failure to do so would not be a social norm. This ritual, called suttee or sati, symbolized that a woman properly recognized that her life was meaningless outside her social role as a wife. This practice is uncommon nowadays and illegal in India.
Altruistic suicide is often thought of as a courageous act. It is common in warfare and the military. Many soldiers sacrifice themselves for the sake of others. This situation also occurs in terrorism, when the individual believes they are benefiting something. For example, the hijackers of the airplanes who crashed into the World Trade Center in New York City. They killed themselves in an effort to meet their social expectations and please their leader.
As we move to the x-axis, we will find ourselves in the direction of anomic suicide. Durkheim studied a new term he called anomie, meaning without norms. Anomie is a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises when we can no longer reasonably expect life to be predictable. Anomie also refers to normlessness. The type of suicide that results from too little social regulation is called anomic suicide. The victim’s moral and social norms are confused and unclear. This type of suicide is committed during times of great change or stress. Life becomes too much for them to handle and hope is lost.
An example of anomic suicide is economic depression and boom. After the stock market crashed in 1929, many stockbrokers and investors killed themselves by jumping out of buildings and skyscraper windows. These businessmen felt that they tried their best but still ended up penniless and like a failure. Working hard on Wall Street was what they believed was the right thing to do and when that did not work out all hope was lost. They had no idea how to cope with the drastic change and resulted in anomic suicide.
Durkheim’s theory of anomic suicide is also applicable to positive life events. For example, lottery ticket winners are often victims of this type of suicide. It is ironic that the winner would experience severe depression after winning millions of dollars. However, if a very poor person wins the lottery, their whole life dramatically changes. One’s money-saving lifestyle and tricks become irrelevant and a waste of effort. Saving coupons and trying to find the best deals at stores is not apart of one’s life anymore. Now that the winner is well off, they have no idea how to behave as a wealthy individual. The victim becomes confused on their new meaning of life.
Now, we have reached the final coordinate, fatalistic suicide. This type of suicide is a result of too much social regulation. It occurs in social conditions where the individual experiences widespread oppression. Feelings of hopelessness are at an all time high for these victims. Why? These individuals experience no variation or change in their lives. They are accustomed to the same old boring routine everyday and have no will to live anymore. The victims see no future ahead of them and have no expectations on having a better life.
This type of suicide is common among slaves, prisoners, and other minorities. People in this category often committed suicide after long periods of mistreatment. They were trapped in an unfair lifestyles. Many were raped, abused, and had no access to education. The poor victims lost all hope of having a better life and lost their will to live. They had nothing to look forward to in life and knew no positive change was coming anytime soon for them. All of those negative factors led to severe depression and resulted in fatalistic suicide.
The cultural oppression of women’s role in society is another example of fatalistic suicide. Before women gained rights in America, women were expected to be housewives. They had to stay home, cook, clean, and take care of their children. Women did not have the right to vote and stand up for themselves. Most did not even go to college and further their education. Men were favored over women and had more rights. It was uncommon for a women to have the same job as a man in America’s old society. Women felt worthless and tired of living a typical stay home mother lifestyle. In many cases, there was oppression in the home by husbands. Unfortunately, in many other third world countries this unfair situation is still a big problem. Some countries today are still conservative and close minded on treating men and women as equals.
In conclusion, Durkheim’s theory of suicide was an explanation on why many people commit suicide. Less depressed people who live positive lifestyles have lower suicide rates than those who were severely depressed and felt worthless in their society. Feelings of hopelessness and having no role in society resulted in many people taking away their lives.