I. Introduction
The relationship between yin and yang in Confucianism revolves around the belief in the cosmic order, which is divided into three levels: Heaven, earth, and the human (Sharma 136). In the human order, the cosmic forces of yin and yang represent the opposing natures of men and women. While yin is known as the dark feminine force, yang is known as the superior, positive, masculine force of nature (Sharma 140). The association of the dark force of yin with females is one of the many reasons there have been arguments against Confucianism that proclaim it has a negative effect on Chinese women. In her journal, “The Movement to Criticize Confucius and Lin Pao: A Comment on ‘The Women of China,” professor and anthropologist Elizabeth Croll argues that Confucius himself established the precedent of oppressing Chinese women in order to increase the power of aristocrats (722). While Croll is exceedingly critical of Confucianism’s subjugation of women, other theologists argue that the goal of Confucianism is not to oppress Chinese women at all. Socialist Daniel A. Bell and his co-author Hahm Chaibong argue, “Most studies of the early Confucian conception of gender concur that it is complementary rather than subordination” (312).
This paper seeks to explore the influence of the Confucian concept of yin and yang on the treatment of Chinese women. This research is worthy of investigation because the effect Confucianism has on the lives on Chinese women has been widely debated for some time now. While some go so far as to say that Confucianism is inherently misogynistic, others are sympathetic and claim that women are not oppressed at all by the principles outlined in Confucianism. This paper seeks not only to examine the principles of Confucianism, but also to look outside the texts and examine the treatment of Chinese women in past and present times in connection to Confucianism. The conclusion to this question will not only shed light on the impact Confucianism has had on Chinese women, but it can also be used as an example of how religion in general affects the lives of individuals. In order to effectively examine the question presented in this paper, I consulted the works of Confucius, Mencius, Ban Zhao; several textbooks about world religions; journals and books written by professors and theologists; and I interviewed two Chinese-American students in order to get a more modern perspective. Interviewing Chinese-Americans as opposed to Chinese citizens is significant because it demonstrates how Confucian principles are still prevalent in the Chinese family. Through a thorough investigation of the cosmic forces of yin and yang, the argument presented in this essay states that the association of yin with concepts such as darkness and passivity has been used to present Chinese women as dangerous and uncomprehending beings whose power is limited to their roles as wives and mothers in the domestic sphere.
II. Yin-Yang Origins
The religion and philosophy known as Confucianism emerged in the sixth century through the lessons of a man named Confucius (Fisher 199). In Confucianism, there exists a cosmic order which is broken into three separate levels: Heaven, earth, and human. These orders are positioned into a hierarchy, with Heaven reigning supreme at the top. Although none of these orders are equal, they work together in order to maintain harmony (Sharma 136). As expressed by Professor Arvind Sharma, “What mattered was the overall effectiveness of the relationship rather than which was superior or inferior” (136). Thus, even though the three orders are unequal in power distribution, they are equal in necessity to the harmony of the universe. This concept of inequality and balance is what gives way to the establishment of the system of yin and yang. Sociologist Daniel A. Bell and President of Asan Institute for Policy Studies Hahm Chaibong identity yin and yang as two of the six cosmic forces in the universe (313). Bell and Chaibong state, “the terms yin and yang originally referred to the weather conditions of being cloudy and sunny respectively” (313). However, yin and yang do not only represent the weather, they also represent female and males. Yin is considered to be the more feminine force while yang is the more masculine force. Although this may seem trivial, these representations of the female and male genders demonstrated through the system of yin and yang are significant to understanding how Confucianism impacts the treatment of women because of the connotations of yin and yang. While the feminine yin is associated with “darkness” and “softness,” the masculine yang is associated with “light” and “hardness.” These two forces are polar opposites, and thus, females and males in the human order are presented as polar opposites with males being associated with light and strength and females being associated with darkness and weakness. According to Professor Arvind Sharma, theologists have developed the following interpretation of females as demonstrated by the Confucian doctrine: “The female [is] inferior by nature, she [is] dark as the moon and changeable as water, jealous, narrow-minded, and insinuating. She was indiscreet, unintelligent, and dominated by emotion” (135).
III. The Danger of Female Sexuality
The association of the cosmic force of yin with darkness has led to the belief that Chinese women are dangerous forces to be reckoned with. Because Chinese women are associated with the dark, cold, and feminine force of yin, there is a belief that the sexual power of women is dangerous. It is not uncommon to see that the sexual power of women leads to the ruin of men in Confucianism. In her book, The Sage and the Second Sex: Confucianism, Ethics, and Gender, Professor Li maintains, “The mere mention of women at the royal level is often intended to evoke a king who has failed to consider his priorities” (77). An example of the potential of women to cause mass ruin is shown in The Spring and Autumn of Master Li, where he tells the story of the state of Zhongshan that fell to ruin because women were left free to corrupt men (Ko 100). This female threat is also known as female ti. Female ti is described as “female potency” or “the innate sexual power of females that can sap a man’s strength if he copulates with them excessively” (Li 143). Again, this idea that the sexual power of women is dangerous can be traced back to the works of Confucius. In particular, women in music during the classical period of China were subjected to this cautious view. According to Confucius, men should “adopt the Shao and the Wu. Banish the tunes of the Zheng and keep plausible men at a distance. The tunes of Zheng are wagon and plausible men are dangerous” (Ko 97). The reason that Confucius believed that the tunes of Zheng were dangerous to men is because they were characterized by songs and dances involving females. As stated by Professor Dorthy Ko, “Among diverse kinds of vernacular music, music made by women is singled out by Confucian scholars as particularly corruptive because it seduces not only with sound but also with the physical presence of female performers” (97). Because of the danger of the female ti, Confucian scholars maintained that men should be cautious of women in music. This fear of women and their sexual power led to a certain prejudice against women in the areas of music in China.
IV. Female Ignorance
The association of yin with darkness can also be interpreted as a darkness of the mind, or a lack of the ability to understand. This idea is supported by the fact that females were presented as unintelligent (Sharma 136). An example of the female lack of understanding is seen through the works of the Confucian Ban Zhao. Ban Zhao is an important figure in Confucianism because she was responsible for teaching younger Chinese women how to behave properly (Sharma 136). In her work, Admonitions for Women, Zhao claims to be “ignorant and by nature unclever” (Bary and Bloom). By saying that she is naturally unclever, she presents the idea that women are thought to be unable to understand the things that men can understand. Another except from Confucian texts that is often used to suggest the ignorant nature of women is written by Confucius himself. In Book Seventeen of the Analects, Confucian states, “Women and people of low birth are very hard to deal with. If you are friendly with them, they get out of hand, and if you keep your distance, they resent it” (Waley 239). While this excerpt is usually used to fault Confucius about his treatment of women, there has been much debate about the translation of Confucius’s words in this passage. Confucius seems to be commenting on the ignorance of women; however, in the original ancient Chinese language, he uses the word nuzi. This word can either be used to describe little girls or people of low birth (Li 3). In her analysis of the female place in Confucian China, Professor Dora Shu-Fang Dien writes, “I believe that Confucius was talking about the delicacy with which a cultivated scholar must relate to individuals of the opposite sex and uneducated men so as not to be inappropriately intimate with them” (74). Regardless of whether Confucius intended to assert that women are resentful, the association of women with ignorance led to a limitation on what Chinese women are allowed to learn. Unlike Chinese boys who were taught about history and other subjects, the education for young girls was solely focused on teaching them how to become good mothers and wives. The Book of Rites states, “[A girl’s] governess taught her [the arts of] pleasing speech and manners, to be docile and obedient, to handle the temper fibers, [all] woman’s work…” (Sharma 141). As such, Confucianism limited the potential of women because their education was mainly focused on how to become proper mothers and wives.
V. Female Obedience
The association of yin with passivity has led to the belief that Chinese women should remain obedient. This obedience also stems from the association of inferior yin with the superior yang. In Admonitions, Ban Zhao writes, “Let a woman modestly yield to others; let her respect others; let her put others first, herself last. Should she do something good, let her not mention it; should she do something bad, let her not deny it” (Bary and Bloom). This idea that women should for all intents and purposes, remain humble at all times and fearful before others is one that is presented in the works of all the Four Book for Women. The Four Books for Women are a collection Confucian works that are aimed specifically at women in hopes of instructing them how to become proper mothers and wives (Bary and Bloom). Though it is true that the establishment of Confucian books for women to read and learn from encourages literacy among certain women, it also demonstrates a separation of standards for Chinese men and women. While men were taught how to function in a stretched social order, women were taught how to remain obedient and submissive (Dien 79). Another concept in Confucianism that kept Chinese women in a subservient position is the Three Obediences. Found in the Record of Rites or the Zhouli, the Three Obediences establish that a woman, “while not yet married, she submits to her father; when married, she submits to her husband; when her husband is dead, she submits to her son” (Zhang). Although it is true that the association of the passive cosmic force of yin has led to an obsession with instilling obedience in Chinese women, it is important to note that this need for obedience is emphasized because Confucianism focuses on maintaining balance in the universe. Like the three orders, yin and yang must work together in their hierarchal positions in order to prevent chaos.
VI. Female Domesticity
The association of the cosmic force of yin with passivity also led to a limitation of the power of Chinese women to the domestic sphere through their roles as mothers and wives. When considering Confucianism’s view of the purpose of women in the home, it is important to note that Confucianism is a religion and philosophy that focuses largely on morals. Because of this emphasis on morals, the relationship that women had in regard to their positions in the household would be seen as morally right, and thus, a breach of Confucian principles if violated (Sharma 138). Confucianism placement of women in the household is so deeply rooted in Chinese culture that it is even reflected in the language, as the “Chinese word for ‘wife’ shows a woman with a broom, signifying the domestic sphere as her proper place” (Sharma 140). The importance of female education is demonstrated here once again because domesticity was cemented into the minds of Chinese females from a young age. While Confucian Ban Zhao, author of Admonitions for Women, played a role in establishing the need for women to be controlled with obedience, she also established the foundation for the domestic indoctrination of Chinese women. In Admonitions, Ban Zhao established the important of a woman’s duty as a wife. Ban Zhao states that the primary duties of females are to be “lowly and submissive,” “hardworking and diligent in the domestic sphere,” and should “enter fully into the wife’s responsibilities to the ancestors of her husband’s family” (Sharma 144). By establishing the idea that the primary focus of all Chinese women should be connected to being an obedient wife and mother in the home, Ban Zhao conveys the idea that the purpose of Chinese women revolves around the domestic sphere. This notion of domesticity was also encouraged through marriage, as females were made to marry young since marriage was seen as rite of passage into adulthood (Sharma 141). As expressed by Professor Dien, “girls were only guests in their natal home before marriage,” and thus, women were only able to retain some sense of purpose through becoming a wife or mother. However, author Xiongya Gao, points out that Chinese women actually “held considerable power and control in the family, even over its male members. One word from the mother could bring her sons to their knees” (117). Indeed, women even had control of their own property and were able to gain more power when widowed (Birge 41). However, despite these powers that women could gain through marriage and childbirth, it is important to note that the worth of the Chinese woman was largely based on her ability to operate in the domestic sphere. If a woman was unable to fulfill her role as a mother through the production of children she was just as powerless and viewed negatively (Gao 117). Hence, because the very worth and identity of women was based on their abilities to fulfill their duties in the domestic sphere, the power and influence of Chinese women was relegated to the domestic sphere.
Because Chinese women were charged with the ultimate responsibility of maintaining the domestic sphere, they were not often allowed to operate in the outside sphere of politics. When discussing the number of ministers in the court of King Wu of Zhou, Confucius disagrees with the king when he says that he has ten ministers. In Analects, it says, “Since Yao and Shun, King Wu had the largest number of talents, among them one was a lady. So he really had nine ministers” (Yu 218). By correcting King Wu and stating that there are only nine ministers of ten because one of them is a woman, a clear inequality in the relationship between men and women in China is demonstrated. This ideal is enforced in Mencius’s Five Relationships. In Book Three of Mencius, the story of Chen Xiang and the lessons he learns from his master, Xu Xiang, is told. During a conversation with Chen Xiang, Mencius questions the logic of considering everyone to be equals. He tells Chen Xiang about the “proper human relationships” which are “affection between father and son, righteousness between ruler and minister, the proper divisions between husband and wife, the precedence of elder and younger, and the faithfulness of friends” (Eno 60). Although Mencius does not specify what the “proper divisions” between husband and wife are exactly, one can only assume that it is not outside the home in places such as the government, since it is indicated that there needs to be clear divisions between the two. Yet, this Confucian ideal seems to have limited affect on the positions of Chinese women during the early stages of Confucianism. Bell and Hahm state, “In the Confucian past, while the official doctrine reserved political power to males, females were not entirely powerless.” According to them, women were able to exercise a certain amount of power in the state by utilizing their positions as advisers to their husbands and sons (323). While it is true that women were not completely barred from participation in politics in China, it is essential to understand that women still faced barriers in the outside realm. The power of the Chinese woman only existed within the limits of the domestic sphere while men ruled everything else in the outer world. As such, men had greater influence over the affairs in the state and once a woman stepped out of her domestic domain, her power was quickly diminished.
VII. Modern Yin-Yang Perspectives
When considering the culture and lifestyle of Chinese families it is important to have an understanding of the influential role Confucianism has had in it historically. As written by Robert E. Van Voorst, “Confucianism forms the basis of Chinese education, ethics, and statecraft…” (140). Indeed, Confucius is responsible organizing the religion and philosophy, but others argue that Confucianism was not necessarily created by Confucius. Author Mary Pat Fisher argues that Confucianism is actually based on the following set of ancient Chinese beliefs: the Lord on High, the Mandate of Heaven, ancestor worship, spirits, and the efficacy of rituals (199). Fisher states, “Confucius developed from these roots a school of thought that emphasizes the cultivation of moral virtues and the interaction between human rulers and Heaven” (199). Regardless of whether Confucius himself is responsible for establishing all the beliefs and rituals in Confucianism, it is clear that Confucianism is deeply embedded into Chinese culture.
Although Confucianism no longer dominates the country of China due to the rejection of religion during the Chinese Communist Revolution of 1949, this religion and philosophy transcends country lines (Voorst 140). Chinese-American Bryan Chan points out that even after the communist revolution, China remained a male dominated society. When asked about the treatment of women in the past, Chan stated, “Yin is the soft and receptive force. If a woman is married and fails to produce a male then, they were considered outcasts and were forgotten. Women were also considered property of the husband’s family.” Chinese-American daughter and student Amy Chen agreed with the idea that women were considered to be submissive and were mainly responsible to taking care of the household, but in today’s society, Chinese women take a more active role in performing their duties. According to Chen, “Women are definitely not seen as authoritative or powerful, but they are necessary to the family. I’ve seen that women tend to work with their husbands in restaurants to support their kids.” Chinese women also continue to play a crucial role in the discipline of the children. The opinion that women are not completely oppressed in today’s society aligns with Confucianism’s promotion of balance between the forces of yin and yang; however, like in the past, the relationship between Chinese men and women is still slightly imbalanced in terms of freedom and agency (Chan). Chan conceded, “It’s not like it was in the past. Today there are equal opportunities in the workplace and education, but women are still looked down as inferiors.”
VIII. Conclusion
One of the main concerns of Confucianism is maintaining balance in the universe. Balance is the key to maintaining order; if order is not maintained, then chaos will ensue. Since it is accepted that females are like the cosmic force of yin, it is also accepted that yin needs to be controlled to some degree by the purer, masculine force of yang. Although the intention of Confucianism itself is not to promote men as the supremely superior and absolute force, this concept became a side effect of such Confucian beliefs. Whether in the arenas of music or politics, the Confucian concept of yin and yang led to the limitation of the power of women as they were seen as dangerous and unintelligent. The representation of yin as a female force also limited the quality and amount of education a Chinese woman could receive. Instead of being taught mathematics, women went through lessons on how to remain obedient and subservient mothers in the household. Through this revelation, the significance of education on the indoctrination of religion into the culture of society is seen. Without this essential education, it is doubtful that such principles would have been successfully distributed for as long and as deeply into the minds of Chinese women as are. Though the treatment of women has become better in today’s world, there still exists some limitations for Chinese women as they continue to be seen as inferior and subservient. Despite the insight revealed through interviewing Chinese-American citizens who can testify for the treatment of women in the Chinese family, the effectiveness of this method was limited by the lack of practicing Confucians in the area. Nevertheless, this limitation demonstrates a key finding from this investigation: despite the withering of the domination of Confucianism, the ethics and morals taught by this religion and philosophy prove to be long-lasting. Even today, the morals and concepts taught by Confucian scholars thousands of years ago continue to impact the lives of Chinese individuals.