Feminist theology is a theological reflection of different aspects of religions. It is a movement which attempts to uncover practices, scriptures, thoughts, and traditions of various religions including Christianity, Judaism, and Buddhism. The main objective of feminist theology is to expand the roles of women among the male-dominated clergy functions and religious authorities. It also aims at ascertaining women’s place with regard to motherhood and careers. Feminist theology is not a new concept, but it is a movement which has developed over time within specific religions. The social and legal status of women has been the main concern of the proponents of feminist theology. Notably, there are different feminist theologians who have adopted different approaches and achieved varying successes in accordance with transformation of the roles of women throughout the history. There are a lot of well-known and well-respected feminist theologians such as Mary Daly, Rosemary Radford Ruether, and Rachel Adler. They are modern feminist theologians who promoted equality among both men and women creating new theologies for women (Nystrom 362).
According to the traditional beliefs of Christianity, normally, one tries best to avoid sinning in order to prevent a damage on his or her relationship with God and to evade an eternal suffering. However, Mary Daly was not in support of the traditional idea of against sinning, and she even claimed that the tradition belief perhaps in fact is a mistake. In Daly’s perspective, the world was an all-inclusive system that consists of different values and institutions (Plaskow). Her perspective of the world was uncommon even among the feminist theologians of modern era. She argued against inequality which was being perpetuated by the patriarchal systems (Nystrom 362). Daly believed that marginalization of women for a long time was wrong and that men ought not to be the dominants of the society. In all her activisms, Daly focused on every social system in which males were perceived as dominant authorities.
Power has over time been associated to males while none is left for women who are expected to be submissive to men’s interests regardless of the fact that they may be having their own goals. To fit in the society, females must go through education and maintain high levels of discipline leaving them as oppression tools (Plaskow). Daly suggested that Catholic Church promoted inequality and oppression of women in the society through its practices which support patriarchy. This perspective was not well received by the church but it contributed significantly towards a valuable national discussion on the roles of women in the society. Many people typically think of sin as a vice to avoid since there is a common notion that righteous people tend to and ought to avoid sinful acts because those acts inflict suffering and injures individual relationship with God, but Daly argued that such a thought is utterly wrong. She further argued that the world is a global system which comprises of patriarchal systems and values as well as institutions. Her argument became apparent when one examines religions which promote male deities which ensures practice of masculinity is successful. In her books, The Church and the Second Sex and Beyond God the Father, Daly criticized sharply about depicting God as a male figure alludes women have secondary roles. In fact, for many years, Catholic Church and churches portrayed and treated women as second class citizens in all aspects of the society (Plaskow). For instance, churches promoted and elevated the status of males as they scorn noteworthy female figures as vice, yet many people believed the teachings. Daly argued that certain religions revile strong women figures in the society and ensures that limited value is accorded to women undermining successful practice of femininity. These mistreatments imply that the society has been made to recognize success through masculinity but not through femininity, which becomes a subject to a violence and other forms of mistreatments. She further alludes that major religions honor systematic violence which is often inflicted on women to ensure that the interests of men are well served. As such, major religions have failed to address issues of masculinity and femininity, and they have become an integral aspect of the society hence making it impossible for one to avoid as many would imagine. Over the years, the patriarchal systems which are supported by the major religions have consolidated social, economic and political power in the hands of men. The power endowed to women is used to serve the interest of men thus neglecting goals and interests of women. Contemporary women always wish to empower their female children, but the ability of the children to achieve their life goals and ambitions demand them to be educated in order to fit patriarchal culture. As such, women have been turned to be tools or vessels which channel inequality and oppression.
Daly further went ahead and urged women to commit sin since they are restricted metaphysically and their ontology stunted (Plaskow). When patriarchy is practiced, it turns out oppressive and reduces significantly the options left for women even in their well-being. To do away with oppression, women are encouraged to change from tools to be active, free and define their own terms. Since patriarchy is practiced globally it becomes difficult for a woman to be a distinct person and is perhaps seen as an act of resistance (Plaskow). However, Daly asserted that an act of resistance is a best the form of sin that women are encouraged to practice to reform the society and to call for gender fairness.
Rosemary Radford Ruether is another prominent feminist theologian who supported a shift from traditional theological consensus to contemporary liberal paradigm which redefines language and manner of interpretation of symbols and sacred texts which dictate women as subordinates in the society (Daily). She claimed that religion has been privatized regardless of one’s dominion and calls for the Christian doctrine to be reformulated (Denise). After Ruether discovered the political and sexist nature of the theological discourse, she began fight for equality among women in religion. She went further to reveal theology’s political structure and gives an alternative account of the symbols and language used by Christian signifying women’s liberation.
Agitated by the earlier practice of church that limited the potential of female figure, Reuther led a progressive wing of Catholic Church. She advocated for radical transformation of Christian doctrine and called for inclusive languages for women against privatization of religion particularly Catholic and Protestant (Feminist Liberation Theologies). She asserted that theological anthropology promoted by privatized religions portray a distorted vision of human nature. Reuther argued that there has been a tendency in religions to correlate feminine with the lowest part of human nature which is a scheme of human mind over body. She went ahead to suggest that women’s subjugation reflects their inferior nature which is a punishment for the sin committed by Adam and Eve in Fall. Reuther closely examined the relationship between theological ideas perpetuated by major religions and social practice in the society. In her essays, Liberation Theology: Human Hope Confronts Christian History and American Power in 1972 and New Woman New Earth: Sexist Ideologies and Human Liberation, Reuther advocated for abolishment of any form of dualism which had been prolonged by the patriarchal system in the society. Zolotova says “She called for an abandonment of all forms of dualism founded on Gnostic body–soul dichotomies and the subjective–objective dualism of modern science.” This statement supports Reuther’s main argument against the conventional doctrines of Christianity, which impeded the process of developing a true theology which would liberate women in the society. According to Reuther, dualism had infested every aspect of life and it promoted sexism, classism, and racism even within the churches. Therefore, reformation was imminent in the churches and it was necessary to reconcile between oppressed and those who perpetuated oppression particularly in subordinate caste within societies.
Ruether remains in Christianity for the sake of restructuring historical errant behaviors in the churches by using a broad ecumenism. The main considerations of her were sexism and racism, which she believed the authorities purposefully making oppressed groups (black and women) to work against each other to make reformation difficult (Denise). Shortly after, black feminism began to go viral among the public to enlighten the connection that existed between race, class, and sex so as to challenge the trend of liberationist groups of insisting on polarity where two oppressed groups found themselves against each other (Denise). Reuther viewed Latin America as a good example of a multicultural theology that lets people interpret Christian religion and the struggle for revolution. Substantial feminism would achieve its purpose if only women from nations that are developed champion for socioeconomic conditions that would in turn liberate every woman globally after which the liberation of class and race would follow. The inability to address the issue of sexism means that issues of race and class cannot be resolved. Reuther supported that sexism which has undermine the power figure of women in the society is a product of religion and cornerstone of the problems of racism in the society. In her wisdom, Reuther argued that there is a necessity for the churches to develop critical consciousness in order to realize liberal feminism which would provide platform where women can find engagement in creation of social, economic, and political conditions in the society, which in turn would support their ambition and goals.
A Jewish feminist theologian, Rachel Adler, demonstrated the importance of Jewish creation stories in terms of integrating her feminist perspective in Judaism; therefore, claiming women and men are same. She composed books and essays that proposed the mistreatments exerted on women in Jewish tradition, and urged for a change to occur. Adler made an allusion to a female character from Yiddish to illustrate her theoretical understanding. She said a woman who goes up a tower of women to converse with God is an incomplete story that has open ending that exemplifies the case of women’s liberation is in Judaism too has no end, only a struggle (Laura).
The pursuit of liberating women in Jewish communities is an endless struggle owing to the fact that human lives are structured by commandments which tend to undermine roles and powers of women in the society. Historically and still today, women are excluded from the study of Torah but it is a subject to be study only by men, which is a prestigious role in the society. Adler questioned the Jewish culture why women are not allowed to study Torah, instead, women are subjects to take care of children, business, and perform chores while their male relatives are studying God’s word that is basis of the religion that structures the society that she is living in. Against the tradition, Adler claimed for engendering Judaism by including women in religious practice such as studying and enlightening them about the gender inequality issues. Even though there are not many changes occurred voluntarily within the Jewish culture, she credits modernity for bringing some changes. As the world becoming more liberal with time, it affects somewhat positively to some societies those were traditionally been conservative about the women’s role.
Although, there are some positive changes occur in accordance with time, Adler criticized Judaism as a failure to progressive movement. She described the Jewish law as ambivalent because Judaism does have some ideas about women and men are created equal, yet the treatments in society conflicts to the idea. Adler asserted that the hierarchical concept is deeply ingrained in Judaism and Christianity which makes difficult to one to embrace practices that would promote equality and mutuality within the society. Stories of equality between men and women is almost a daily topic that is brought up for change but little has been achieved. Adler further said that the world she lives is where people are expected to embrace ideas and values without questioning. Since people are raised in such environment that it is sometimes difficult for people to get out of this oppression which suppresses women. For example, marriage confined to traditional halakah lacks elements of mutuality and equality among the married couple. Halakah in general disregard the well-being of women and voices of women, there cannot be a proper balance between the needs and interests of individuals in relationships.
In conclusion, these three prominent feminist theologians expressed the suppression exerted on women in the society in early twentieth century when women began to fight for their own equal rights. To promote for better lives for those who lived in margin of the society, they asserted for equality among women in male dominated culture. Enduring the criticism, they sought to break the tradition to make progression in the churches and the society. Like these theologians worked for improvement, the movement for equality today should adapt and advance the predecessors’ idea for more progression. In order to do so, one should not have apologetic attitude because it only makes one difficult to change like Daly insisted.