The School of Athens: Ancient Philosophy, Renaissance Ideals, and Scientific Discovery
Following the Dark Medieval Ages, the Renaissance emerged as a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, and philosophy, thus the association of the Renaissance with the term “rebirth”. The Renaissance began in Italy and quickly spread throughout all of Europe. During this time, Europe was increasing its awareness of nature and individuals, breaking away from medieval concepts in order to discover a true understanding of man. The old view of the world was changing as society no longer felt directly controlled by God.. The philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians were now dominating with their new theories of the universe. Renaissance art reflected these new theories in a medium that society could grasp and appreciate. More specifically, Raphael, in his fresco entitled, The School of Athens (1509-1511), depicts the Renaissance ideal of humanism as vital to the times through his inclusion of well-known intellectual figures in their portrayal of higher learning and man’s centrality to new ideas in a changing society.
While Raphael’s grand fresco captures an imagined gathering of the most prolific representatives of Greek philosophy, the viewer is drawn towards three prominent figures: Plato, Aristotle, and Pythagoras. Plato and Aristotle are the focal point, positioned in the center of the painting flanked by men who are actively engaged in sharing ideas. Similarly, Pythagoras is seen in the left foreground, surrounded by curious students peering over his shoulders to copy the notes or calculations he is making in his dense notebook.
The painting feels quiet, mimicking the atmosphere of a museum, where people are eager to discuss their insights and observations. Aristotle is wearing light brown and blue hues, the colors of earth and water, and his arm is directed outward towards the viewer, with his palm facing the ground. Plato is wearing red and purple, colors symbolic of air and fire and he is also pointing up towards the sky and Heavens above the world of man. Raphael emphasizes the importance of these men with the use of linear perspective and a single vanishing point. According to art historian Erwin Panovsky, perspective allows man to “internalize” miraculous or divine phenomenon by transforming it into art and a reality close to man’s “own, apparently natural, visual space”. The development of perspective in art during the Renaissance reflects the overarching progression of philosophical inquiry, to make the universe understandable to man by means of his own intellect, observation, experience, and talent.
Pythagoras influenced Plato, Aristotle, and the Scientific Revolutionary thinkers with his concepts of the mathematical nature of astronomy and reality and his wide-ranging body of knowledge and interest in nearly all aspects of Man’s existence, experience, and the natural world around him. Within the painting, Pythagoras is teaching a lesson and it resembles a school setting, with his pupils eyeing his notations avidly. “Pythagoreanism interweaves rationalism and irrationalism more inseparably than does any other movement in ancient Greek though”. Plato was one of the first ancient Greek philosophers to pose questions about Man’s involvement and power in influencing his own experience. The book he holds in the painting, Timaeus, explains the wandering of the planets, as this was actually the perfect circular motions of the planets. The influence of the Timaeus was largely scientific although Plato was primarily a philosopher. By comparison, his student Aristotle holds forth his monumental work Ethics, which emphasized the virtues man achieves by performing actions that embody a fulfilling and complete life, emphasizing the relationships, justice, friendship, and government of the human world and the need to study it. As The School of Athens beautifully illustrates, the Renaissance revival of classical learning was meant to expand man’s consciousness and ability to rationalize what was both contained in and beyond his reality.
Humanism emerged during the Renaissance and promoted the philosophy that man is at the center of his universe and can exercise critical thinking that elevates him to a position of freedom and will over any higher religious authority. Thus, the scientific view of the world was revolutionary. Some of the classical views and concepts that lingered for 2,000 years were either replaced with more current findings of the Scientific Revolution or dismissed. Christianity and the Church had always been the driving force of most people’s lives, but when new discoveries and scientific ideas emerged, religion became a lesser authoritative force. With a new focus on understanding the universe, nature, and the human experience, this “science” became the new substitute for religion.
Aristotle influenced Galileo to question Aristotle’s own conception of the celestial perfection. Galileo, using his telescope, observed that the moon did not have a perfectly smooth surface; it was, in fact, very uneven. Galileo is often credited with his creation of the astronomic telescope. His astronomical telescope enabled him to view the bumps and grooves on the moon as well as his to make one of his most famous discoveries, that of Jupiter’s four moons, which are now known as “the Galilean moons”. It was during the Renaissance that the first heliocentric view surfaced. This meant that the sun was the center of the universe and that Earth as well as the other planets revolved around it. Francis Bacon did not agree with Aristotle’s assumptions regarding the universe, but he did follow the empirical approach of Aristotlean logic. He believed that the truth is not known in the beginning of the process, only at the end. Bacon developed a method called the scientific method, a step-by-step process that entailed collecting data, formulating a “hypothesis”, testing the “hypothesis”, and writing a mathematically supported conclusion. From the foundation laid by their philosophical predecessors, both Galileo and Bacon advanced scientific knowledge and methodology forward for the practical purpose of increasing man’s awareness of the universe.
Plato believed that math was the key to unlocking nature’s truths, both hidden and visible and Pythagoras theorized that the motion of the stars and planets were all in accordance with mathematical laws. He believed that the movement of the planets was in perfect harmony. Sir Isaac Newton had observed an apple falling down from a tree and wondered if this occurrence had something to do with the movements of the planets. Combining empirical evidence with mathematical calculations, Newton derived the concept of gravitational force and demonstrated how gravitational force controls everything from an object falling from short height to the movement and orbits of the planets revolving around the sun. He also developed math formulas, logic, and techniques to explain and prove his laws of motion. One of Newton’s most important contributions, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, explained the uniform laws and mathematical workings of the universe, including gravity, mechanics and planetary movement. Newton inherited the tools and reasoning methods from the Pythagorean, Platonic, and Aristotelian philosophical schools.
Humanism gave the individual a sense of virtue and empowered people to participate in society and contribute to the discussions, pursuits, and community life of their time. From humanism to Renaissance revival of antiquity to the philosophical, political ideas and scientific achievements of the Scientific Revolution, these are all represented in Raphael’s ingenious artistic creation of a gathering of wise forward-thinking individuals who put the thoughts and achievements of man and his progress into motion. In his masterpiece The School of Athens, Raphael demonstrates continuity across centuries and cultures with a collaborative thread tying them together, portrayed with such casual camaraderie.