Organizational Psychology
Richardson, K. M. (2017). Managing employee stress and wellness in the new millennium. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 423-428. doi:10.1037/ocp0000066
Richardson offers a thorough meta-analysis reviewing the past decade of occupational stress management interventions in the workplace. The article presents a review of what has been learned, what new studies have been added into the literature, and assesses social and political changes within the field of organizational psychology. New challenges and opportunities in the context of stress management are presented including the growing importance of the multigenerational workplace. The conducted meta-analysis was published in a special series of The Journal of Occupational Health Psychology called The Journal of Occupational Health Psychology at 20. This article introduces definitions and new research on new terms like technostress and telepressure. Richardson concludes that additional primary research, as well as additional meta-analyses, need to be added into the literature in order to expand on stress management interventions in the workplace, focusing on issues of technostress, generational changes, and better integration with other health strategies.
The meta-analysis does a fantastic job at introducing new concepts and challenges into the literature. This will impact the field of organizational psychology in the way that it shines light on challenges that were not previously important in the workplace. The most significant contribution Richardson makes here, is the emphasis on the multigenerational workplace. Introducing the multigenerational workplace has implications for future research, producing results on differences in work productivity, attitudes in the workplace, and availability to work. A key difference suggests that attitudes may be different which can contribute to the types of stress experienced by different ages. For example, older generations may prefer a more definitive workplace, going to work and then going home and ending the workday, whereas the younger generation may not be opposed to working late-night hours or working from home using technology. The increasing emphasis on consistently being attached to technology is related to another term introduced by Richardson called telepressure. Telepressure represents how the combination of preoccupation and urge to immediately respond to work-related information and communication technologies contributes to workplace stress, specifically in individuals who do not respond well to technology or wish to use their technology for personal life rather than the workplace. The multigenerational workplace, along with telepressure, will continue to contribute to research on stress management interventions in the workplace.
Eisen, K. P., Allen, G. J., Bollash, M., & Pescatello, L. S. (2008). Stress management in the workplace: A comparison of a computer-based and an in-person stress-management intervention. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(2), 486-496. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.02.003
The researchers, Eisen, Allen, Bollash, & Pescatello, conducted primary research in order to compare the effectiveness of a computer-based stress management intervention to a traditional in-person stress management intervention. The researchers compared the results of both interventions against a wait-list condition. 288 participants volunteered to participate in this research from a population of over 13,00 employees. Using a random assignment method, participants were assigned to the three conditions; computer-based, in-person, or wait-list. Participants engaged in a two-week intervention period which included training in progressive relaxation, time management, and practice in a variety of stress-reduction techniques. The researchers were aware of and reported the limitations to their study. The researchers concluded that two-minute mini-relaxations significantly reduced reported stress in both interventions (computer-based and in-person). The results suggest that computer-based stress interventions may be a valuable and cost-effective way of reducing stress in the workplace.
After a thorough review on the negative impact of workplace stress such as decreased productivity, increased health risks, increased absenteeism etc., the researchers were able to suggest an intervention that can be used for those individuals who either do not have the time or are unwilling to attend in-person treatment for stress. After reading the 2017 meta-analysis above, there is an additional limitation to this study not reported in the limitations section of the research article. In terms of the multi-generational workplace, there is the possibility that the older generation will not benefit or appreciate a computer-based approach as much as the younger generation might. Implementing computer-based interventions may also contribute to technostress and telepressure for older generations or individuals not appreciative of technology use for the workplace. Just adding in more technology to the workplace has the potential to be counterproductive. In this case, there should be the option for either intervention, computer-based or in-person so that each individual has the option to choose what is best for their stress management.
Munz, D. C., Kohler, J. M., Greenberg, C. I. (2001). Effectiveness of a Comprehensive Worksite Stress Management Program: Combining Organizational and Individual Interventions. International Journal of Stress Management, (8)1. doi: 10.1023/A:1009553413537
The presented research article evaluated the effectiveness of a comprehensive stress
Management program (CSMP) that provided interventions on an individual (self-management) and organizational (stressor reduction process) level. The research was conducted in order to fill a gap in the literature since the effectiveness of a stressor reduction process in combination with self-management training had not yet been conducted. Four work units in four different cities were selected, two groups received the program, the other two were used as a control group. The research length was a three-month period. On an individual level, the participants were asked to complete a questionnaire package that included; the Perceived Stress Survey, the Center of Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Work group productivity and absenteeism were evaluated on an organizational level. The results of the study provide evidence that self-management training, in combination with the stressor reduction process, improves the emotional well-being of the employees who attended self-management training. The researchers concluded that on an individual level, self-management training will be most effective for those who perceive a need to better manage their responses to stress and on an organizational level the stressor reduction process will have greater benefits for the work team as a whole. Limitations of the study were reported and acknowledged, suggesting additional studies to be conducted to build greater confidence in the internal and external validity of the findings.
The research conducted by Munz, Kohler, and Greenberg differentiates the individual level and the organizational level within the workplace. This differentiation contributes to the literature in the way that it provides evidence for different approaches to be used on each level in regards to stress management interventions. On an individual level, self-management training proved to be most effective. In the 2008 study mentioned above, a form of self-management used is mini-relaxations during high stress periods. The presented research suggests alternative forms of intervention when the aim is to benefit the entire organization’s team rather than each individual employee. Consistent with the other articles under review, the literature review shows the negative impacts of stress when it goes unmanaged such as decreased productivity and high cost from absenteeism. This research is limited by the inability to apply statistics to the organizational level and low validity of the results.
Educational Psychology
Häfner, A., Stock, A., Pinneker, L., & Ströhle, S. (2014). Stress prevention through a time management training intervention: an experimental study. Educational Psychology, 34(3), 403-416. Doi: 10.1080/01443410.2013.785065
This article investigates the effects of implementing a time management training program for first year university students experiencing stress. The researchers used first year students because their stress levels tend to be significantly higher than those of non-student samples. The time management program used is based on psychological theory as well as research rather than items such as self-help literature, which has typically been used in similar programs in past literature. 177 students were divided into either a control group or an experimental group for this study. In the time management program, used on the experimental group, the focus was placed on “prioritizing and goal setting, strategy development and process simulation, structuring the work day and using implementation intentions, and monitoring†(pp. 407). Some of the training techniques included mapping out step by step details of what the experimental participants wanted to do throughout the next day as well as setting specific goals and using feedback processes to monitor their goal achievements. The researchers had the control group learn about a training program in an occupational context unrelated to their schooling. Prior to this study, participants were required to complete a questionnaire regarding the demands they had in school, their perceived control of time as well as the tension/stress they felt at the time. Once the groups completed their programs, they filled out the same questionnaire again to determine an increase or decrease in the factors mentioned above. The researchers discovered that the demands increased significantly in the first weeks of school, however, in the experimental group, the time management training program lessened the participants’ perceived external demands. In the control group, participants felt an increase in external demands, which reflected in an increase of tension and stress. In the experimental group, this increase in tension and stress did not occur.
The time management program used in this study aided in improving feelings of exhaustion as well as imbalance and fatigue, which are directly connected to feelings of tension. The researchers explain this by stating that through strategies used, the stressful events that participants experienced could be “anticipated and emotionally controlled resulting in positive effects on perceived stress†(pp. 412). However, despite how effective this study may have been, there was one noticeable limitation. The time management program only lasted two weeks, therefore, this study may not be a completely accurate representation of how effective this program is. In my personal experience, when a person begins to purposely form a new habit, it is easy to stay motivated within the first few weeks. However, the positive results demonstrated in this study may discontinue with more time. It would be effective for future researchers to complete a study wherein the time management program lasts for several weeks to months in order to determine how consistent participants will be as well as if the positive results of the experimental group will continue after a long period of time.
Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., Greenberg, M. T. (2013).
Improving Classroom Learning Environments by Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in
Education (CARE): Results of a Randomized Controlled Trial. School Psychology Quarterly,
28(4), 374-390. Doi: 10.1037/spq0000035
Researchers in this study developed a Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) program that is based on mindfulness development in order to reduce teachers’ stress and improve their performance in classrooms. This study tested teachers’ “well-being, classroom efficacy, burnout, stress, and health†(pp. 374). The CARE program used combined emotional skill instruction by a coach as well as mindful awareness and compassion building practices in order to provide teachers with the proper skills to manage classroom environments and create positive relationships with students. The program was an intensive 30-hour program that was presented over a period of four to six weeks with phone coaching. This extensive program approach was used due to lack of effectiveness that one day workshop approaches have on teachers’ improvement. 50 teachers were either assigned to the CARE program group or a comparison control group. Each teacher was assigned to a coach that held 20-minute sessions over the phone throughout the period of the study in order to instruct the teachers as well support them in their development through their practices of mindfulness. The teachers also completed online self-reports before and after the study in order to measure the different elements listed above. The results suggest that the CARE program significantly improved teachers’ well-being by 92 percent and their self-awareness by 96 percent. Moreover, students’ prosocial behavior improved by 76 percent, on-task behavior by 66 percent and academic performance by 57 percent.
As stated above, the CARE program used in this study had significantly positive effects on teachers as well as their students in comparison to those who did not have any improvement in the control group. The teachers’ reports of reduced stress symptoms suggest that the program used has the ability to have a significantly positive impact on teachers in regard to improving stress, resilience and preventing stress-related illnesses. The response of stress can force a deterioration of cognitive functioning over time, which the CARE program can help with by aiding teachers in regulating their emotional reactivity. This research study can have implications on future research in many different ways. Although the CARE program was deemed as effective, in future research, it would be important to study larger sample sizes in order to have a better understanding of how truly effective this mindfulness program can be. Furthermore, future research should continue to follow students and/or teachers for a longer period of time to determine how effective the program can be on stress and learning performance. Lastly, future research should also include a similar CARE program for students, that is used on teachers simultaneously to demonstrate whether there will be a larger impact on students and teachers if used. I personally chose this article because through teachings at school as well as my own practices, mindfulness can have an exceptionally positive impact on stress management. I found this study to be especially intriguing as it placed its main focus on the individuals that affect students’ performance the most.
LePine, J. A., LePine, M. A., & Jackson, C. L. (2004). Challenge and Hindrance Stress:
Relationships with Exhaustion, Motivation to Learn, and Learning Performance. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 89(5), 883-891. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.883
This article examines the differences between stress associated with challenges as well as hindrances in learning environments. Hindrance stress relates to conflicts and hassles with work whereas challenge stress is related to the level of demands in the work that also has potential gains for the individual. 696 university students took part in this study. The researchers had several hypotheses that all compared challenge stress, hindrance stress, exhaustion, motivation to learn, cognitive ability, conscientiousness, and emotional stability to each other. Each element was measured through an online survey completed by all participants during the midpoint of their semester in order to determine how participants felt about each during a potentially stressful time. Researchers also used students’ SAT scores, semester grade point averages, Likert scales and a Burnout Measure to assess these individual differences. After assessing the results, the researchers discovered that both challenge stress and hindrance stress were positively related to exhaustion. As for motivation to learn, challenge stress had a positive effect whereas hindrance had a negative effect. The other elements used were able to determine how much of an effect they had on motivation to learn as well as exhaustion in comparison to the two types of stress. They were also used to explain the reason behind the two forms of stress having different relationships with learning performance. In conclusion, challenge stress was perceived as motivation for participants and promoted learning performance, however, it negatively affected participants’ personal well-being. On the other hand, hindrance stress was found to be detrimental to the majority of the other elements measure in this study and had a negative impact in learning environments.
This study is of great importance to literature as in the past, relationships between stress and performance have been inconsistent. The findings in this study support that the relationship between the two can depend on whether the stress is related to either challenges or hindrances. The impact of this study was significant as it has allowed researchers to introduce different types of stress and the different effects they may have on individuals. This can have a great impact on how learning environments are managed in terms of instructional design as well as administration. In future research, researchers should work to determine what factors influence students to subjectively categorize whether they are feeling hindrance stress or challenge stress as each person has differences in what they believe becomes a challenge or a hindrance. Furthermore, future research should implement a program similar to the two included in the other articles provided in this annotated bibliography in order to assess how they may have different effects on individuals depending on what type of stress they are experiencing. I believe this study introduces an important distinction between the different types of stress, which can be useful towards dealing with designing programs for stress management as these types influence individuals differently.
Sport Psychology
Cologgi, K. (2015). Self-Concept Clarity of Transitioning Athletes. Florida State University. Retrieved
    from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1692562325?pq-origsite=gscholar.
The research presented by Cologgi addresses the importance of sports in high level elite athletes. The article shows how long term athletes can develop a dependence on their sport at an early stage in life. The research focuses on athletes who are retiring from their sport at the age of 20-25. This transition period can be a time of confusion and turmoil in one’s life, amplifying stress. Cologgi used a variety of athletes from the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), Canadian Collegiate Athletic Association, and the Canadian Interuniversity Sport(CIS). Cologgi’s results imply that athletic identity negatively predicted the self-concept clarity of transitioning athletes. Additionally, athletes retiring for voluntary reasons showed higher self-concept clarity during the transition phase, as compared to athletes involuntarily ending their sporting careers. The author indicates that all athletes, regardless of the reasoning for their retirement, are at risk of several things such as loneliness, confused self-identity and, peaked stress-levels. Cologgi concludes that 99 percent of all NCAA athletes will have to transition out of their sport at some point in their lives. Future research should focus on transitioning plans for elite athletes who are transitioning out of their sport, and aid the athletes who are being forced to retire due to injury.
The presented research shines a light on athletes who are at risk of decreased mental health after retiring from their sport for both voluntary and involuntary reasons. With thousands of athletes a year graduating from their schools and/or retiring from their sport, the concept of athletes being at risk of poor mental health post retirement needs to be more thoroughly researched. After thousands of hours spent surrounding yourself in a sport, the concept of retiring and having to walk away can cause a great amount of stress. Cologgi believed that it is important to create transition plans to help aid athletes into a healthy lifestyle beyond their athletic retirement. A transitional plan can be implemented as a stress management technique, allowing athletes to reallocate their resources, such as new found leisure time. Providing resources for potential counseling due to the high risk of lowered mental health may also have benefits. It is evident that further research should be conducted on finding ways to help athletes create a transition plan for retiring from their sport.
McGee, E. (2009). The effects of a self -esteem enhancement program on perceived performance among intercollegiate athletes (Psy.D). Marywood University.
The dissertation by McGee questioned the effectiveness of using cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to increase the level of self-esteem and performance both in an athlete’s chosen sport but in their day to day lives as well. McGee also monitored mental health levels during the studying looking at stress levels, meaning & purpose, as well as social connection. McGee’s goal was to see positive results from the self-esteem program and CBT sessions, she believed positive results would show a higher self-esteem, lower stress levels through stress management strategies, and an increase in performance levels in their respective sports. McGee’s research team had collegiate level athletes complete a demographic questionnaire at the start of the study, athletes also completed self-report tests on self-esteem, perceived competence and psychological well-being and stress levels. Athletes would then complete the enhancement program that was styled in the manner of being CBT. The participating athletes were split up into two groups, an experimental group or a waitlist control group. Prior to the first session in a five week study, the experimental group would complete Christopher Mruk’s self-esteem enhancement program. Once the athletes had completed the program, and the five weeks of follow up sessions, the same tests were re-administered from the start of the study. These follow up sessions were CBT group sessions that focused on several different factors targeted towards sports. Factors such as stress management, personal goals, self-purpose and self-esteem. Whilst the wait-listed control group would be offered the self-esteem enhancement course upon completion of the study. Results indicated that there was a significant difference between the two groups for global self-esteem and perceived competence. There was an increase in all measures for athletes that participated in the self-esteem program. This concludes high global self-esteem, lower stress levels, higher confidence in and outside their sports as well as several other personal characteristics. McGee concluded that having athletes participate in CBT with a focus on self-esteem enhancement is able to increase global self-esteem as well as perceived competence and, increased overall well-being. Athletes from this study showed benefits within their sports but also in other life domains.
At a collegiate level athletes are expected to perform at a high level and are often under a lot of pressure from coaches and athletic directors to win at a constant rate, pre-disposing them to self-esteem issues and high stress levels, if they aren’t able to meet these expectations. In future research it would be important to use a large sample size as well as athletes at different levels from all sports. Future research should also focus on similar ways to help athletes with their mental health, allowing them to compete at a high level but to also promote success in various life domains. Personally I chose this article because I have been participating in high level sports all my life, on a national and collegiate level. I believe it is incredibly important as an athlete to not only take care of your mental health, but to emphasis mental fitness, as much as physical fitness.
Chen, L. (2012). Gratitude and Adolescent Athletes’ Well-Being: The Multiple Mediating Roles of Perceived Social Support from Coaches and Teammates. Social Indicators Research, 114(2), 273-285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0145-2
Chen’s research emphasizes the importance of social support from athlete’s coaches, as well as, teammates. The research investigates the relationship between gratitude and athlete well-being, as well as relationships that athletes become engulfed in. The study looked at 291 adolescent athletes (M = 16.8), 91 percent of these athletes trained more than five times per week and competed at a national level. Studying athletes in their adolescent years is considered to be crucial because of the balancing of school and sport. Chen emphasized the importance of identifying stress management techniques in order to overcome stress from goal management and enhance overall involvement in sports respectively. Self-report questionnaires were distributed to athletes in order to collect data. Chen’s concluded that grateful athletes are more satisfied with their team and overall lives and second, the study showed that perceived coach and teammate support mediate the relationship between gratitude and athletes’ well-being. The findings imply that gratitude can have a positive impact on overall well-being such as lower stress levels and greater social connection, . Differentiating the roles of coach and teammate imply that each individual in that role are able to provide vastly different support tools to an athlete. To focus on the importance of the coaches’ role, participants received more tangible support for both inside and outside of the sport from their coaches. Chen concludes by discussing the importance of providing social support to athletes at all levels and ages. More research should be conducted to emphasis the importance of gratitude in athletes.
In the context of sport, an athlete can encounter a vast amount of pressure and stress from competing. Pressure to succeed, packed training schedules, and keeping up with academics are just some of the few stressors adolescent athletes will face. Chen provides an insight on who plays important roles in offering support to these athletes, as well as the effect of gratitude on their general well-being. Chen mentions how elite athletes at an adolescent age are at a crucial time and often need guidance with issues inside and outside of their respective sports. How much potential a coach has to help their athletes succeed outside of their sport will have a significant impact as well. With sports participation levels always with consistent numbers, it is clear that there are athletes who are participating at high levels and can benefit from social supports. I believe future research can be done on the effectiveness of coaches on increasing an athlete's’ well-being outside of their respective sports. Research at the transition period for athletes entering post-secondary education needs to be continued considered the impact this transition can have on well-being.
Summary
After a brief review of stress management literature across three fields of psychology; organizational, educational, and sport, crossover of interventions can be noticed, as well as differences. Organizational psychology emphasizes the different levels that stress management interventions need to address; the individual and organizational level. This field also introduces the challenges that arise due to the multigenerational and technology focused workplaces, and the types of stress that develop from these challenges. The most recent meta-analysis, conducted in 2017, suggests that future research needs to focus on generational changes, technostress, and better integration with other health strategies in order to increase stress management efficiency in the workplace. Educational psychology did a much better job at exploring types of stress management interventions and the implications these interventions have within the classroom. The Hafner et al., (2014) research focused on the benefits of time-management strategies while the Jennings et al., (2013) research explored the use of mindfulness to increase overall performance and well-being. In sport psychology, the focus seems to be on the transitional period that the majority of athletes go through, either into or out of a collegiate institution or in regards to retirement. This transition can cause high peaks of stress but can be mediated by social supports, cognitive-behavioural programs, and planning techniques.
There is sufficient evidence to support the importance of managing stress across all three fields explored, as well as in fields that have not been discussed. Although there is already a lot of literature that can be reviewed, implications for future research are suggested within each field. Organizational psychology should find ways to increase validity in the context of organizational stress variables. A difficulty in presenting statistics was discussed in two of three articles. Educational psychology should continue to research the benefits of mindful practice in the classroom, not only for teachers, but also for the students. Whereas, sport psychology research needs to expand on the interventions available to athletes during high stress transition periods. Expanding the literature with specific focuses will have an exceptional impact on the individual’s within each field.