Hero (2002), directed by Zhang Yimou, is a Chinese action and adventure martial arts film that set ‘the box office record in China at 250 million yuan (US$30,000,000)’. The film, set in about 200 BC, focuses on Nameless – a professional and dedicated sword wielder – who is brought to meet the King of Qin as he claims to have assassinated the King’s three main and most feared enemies; Sky, Flying Snow and Broken Sword. The film relays three different versions of these supposed assassinations using flashbacks. Nameless recounts the first version of the events, then the King imagines his own, and finally we are revealed the truthful recount of the happenings.
Part 1
In the first part of this essay, we will start off by situating the film Hero in cinema’s history, and more specifically in Asian cinema history. Once a detailed context is given, we will explore how certain aspects- such as particular themes and issues, as well as aesthetic style- of this context find themselves in Zhang Yimou’s film.
First of all, East Asian cinema’s first key development was in the 1950’s which is considered to be the Golden Age of many Asian cinemas.
It was only during the 1960’s and 1970’s that Hong Kong cinema, amidst all the other rapidly growing cinemas, became a force to be reckoned with as it was gaining a significantly strong commercial power. Indeed, the martial arts aspect of Hong Kong cinema films enabled it to have a high profile, and with the help of its prominent star system; this it was able to propel itself forward- enough to have an influence on Hollywood. It’s the distinctive action and martial arts aspects that were brought to big budget Hollywood movies; such as Bloodsport (1996) an American martial arts film directed by Newt Arnold, or Best of the Best (1989), was directed by Bob Radler.
Nevertheless, Chinese cinema has seen a troubled past. Indeed, come 1949 when the People’s Republic of China was founded and put in the hands of Mao Zedong; that was when Chinese cinema experienced numerous complications and restrictions. Despite the Shanghai Film Studio being established that same year, just a few months later the ‘Film Bureau of the newly founded PRC issues a set of regulations on film censorship,’ Later,, the first film in China was officially banned by Mao Zedong; The Life of Wu Xun by Sun Yun was criticised ‘for not focusing enough on class struggles’ This marks the beginning of a strong political control of many cultural aspects in China. Indeed, in November 1951, the ‘state-sponsored political rectification of the film industry begins.’ In fact, over ‘603 feature films and 8,342 reels of documentaries and newsreels were produced, sponsored mostly as Communist propaganda by the government.’ Inevitably, this sparked contestations amongst the general public, but the anger and frustration was especially felt by artists of all kinds, as not only films were being banned.
Moreover, during the Cultural Revolution that started in 1966, and ended in 1976 was when ‘many “educated youth” from urban areas are rusticated to rural areas to participate in agricultural labor’, and therefore ‘most film studios ceased production, except for a few “revolutionary model plays”.’
It’s only after that Chinese cinema attained a significant boost with the emergence of the 5th Generation. This new up and coming generation of filmmakers, legacies of the Cultural Revolution, was armed with a fresh and distinctive approach to cinematic storytelling and was prepared to leave a prominent mark on Chinese cinema history.
The Beijing Film Academy, after having suffered penury during the Cultural Revolution, reopened to prospective students in 1978. Many of the 5th Generation filmmakers attended the Academy at this point; and it soon acquired a list of notable alumni who became key figures of Chinese cinema, such as Chen Kaige who directed Yellow Earth (1984) and Zhang Yimou who directed Red Sorghum (1987).
‘Starting as early as 1977 but concentrated between 1978 and 1981, mainland Chinese cinema was taken over by a brief but intense episode of retrospective national self-examination.’
This was particularly noticeable in the films produced post Cultural Revolution and by 5th Generation filmmakers; indeed, on
‘China’s screens, the ‘cultural revolution’ decade of 1966-76 was repudiated and cinematically reinterpreted in approximately 30% of total feature film production, much of it given over to a cycle of what could be called ‘scar’ films.’
Zhang Yimou, one of the key figures of the 5th Generation and of Chinese cinema history in general, claims in a recent interview that when he ‘started making films more than ten years ago, we definitely wanted to rebel.’ Indeed, he considers the 5th Generation as a breakthrough for Chinese cinema, and ‘from a pragmatic perspective, this breakthrough attracted the attention of audiences. From an aesthetic or pure filmic perspective, our achievement was also a breakthrough.’
Indeed, Zhang Yimou, who attended the Beijing Film Academy, is considered to be the most internationally respected, multi-skilled and nonconformist filmmaker of the 5Th Generation. Thus, he was part of the first filmmakers to have studied Western cinema and incorporated it into their own work, but also the first to have rejected and rebelled against the use of film as a communist propaganda tool. Zhang Yimou’s first productions were strongly focused on China and its people; but were tainted with a perspective which was far from reality. These films knew a large success, enthralling international audiences with their aesthetics and oriental qualities.
In 2002, Zhang Yimou’s Hero was released and became ‘a milestone not only for his personal aesthetic style but also for China’s commercial movie production and its national movie industry.’ Indeed, 2002 was a rather marked year for China and its cinema- the control on the independent production of films was considerably loosened, and private studios were given permission to make films by the Chinese State Administration of Radio, Film and Television, only if they were issued a permit. Moreover, the Chinese film distribution system was reformed to follow Hollywood’s- making not only the investment and production of Chinese films much easier, but also their distribution. In this respect, not only was Zhang Yimou’s Hero born at just the right moment and thus marks a pivotal moment in Chinese film history; it can also be considered as the very first commercial film that enabled it, as well as Chinese films, to rapidly find a significant place in the global market.
Indeed, as mentioned above, the martial arts aspect of films is internationally popular; and ‘it is apparent that the choice of the martial arts genre as the format for Hero is a conscious decision as the genre embodies international market potential.’ This sole aspect participated in Hero’s success; as Zhang ‘kept Western audiences in mind while making the film because he knew he would not be able to recoup the production costs through Chinese ticket sales alone.’ This was the reason Hero was such a breakthrough for Chinese cinema in general, as it not only is ‘a representation of certain aspects of China and a reflection of anxieties related to contemporary Chinese society’, it also is ‘a film made by an auteur whose own psychic making- from a desperate feeling of entrapment by history to urges of oedipal patricide- has left visible marks on the film.’ – all whilst keeping its Western appeal.
Zhang Yimou also conveys China’s past in Hero, fundamentally making it ‘about the tensions between individual identity and the institution of power that impose certain codes to limit the possibility of defining one’s identity’ – referring to The People’s Republic of China under Mao Zedong’s power. We can relate this to the symbolic use of colours in Hero, and how colour symbols were created in films produced by filmmakers from the 5th Generation; such as red as it is not only ‘the colour of revolution: red flags, little red books, Red Guards, and of course the red sun, which is the symbol of Chairman Mao’, but also ‘a commemoration of freedom, exuberance, and the most primal desires and aspirations, which have been denied by both Confucianism and Communism.’
Zhang Yimou’s Hero was also released shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 in the United States, and Zhang revealed that it
‘took place when we were shooting the film, we could feel the enmity among men – they want to annihilate each other, you don’t know when it will be over… I wanted to convey such realistic messages through an ancient-costume martial arts film.’
Indeed, he admits that the attacks gave him
‘a thrust to use Hero to propose a new world order to the current “dysfunctional” one and this new world order is tianxia, a “Chinese cultural order” that represents “a higher level of unity and coherence.”’
Moreover, Zhang Yimou wanted Hero to ‘communicate some meanings stemmed from reality’ and ‘to have some meaning, a meaning that can be accepted by everyone’ and that despite it being a ‘beautiful costume drama with a lot of fighting sequences’, he desperately wanted to provoke a reaction, and therefore invite the audience to reflect.
Focusing more in depth on Hero, we also notice key aspects of 5th Generation films present in the movie.
Indeed, starting with the locations used – which were all in China – the sandstorms of Dunhuang in the Gansu Province were featured in the scene of the King of Qin’s army attack on the enemy’s Zhao capital, and were ‘made into a symbol standing for China’s past suffering from Western imperialism and serving as a live textbook for nationalism and patriotism.’
Furthermore, films produced by 5th Generation filmmakers tended to have a strong female presence. Indeed, we notice this too in Zhang Yimou’s Hero; as there are two female characters; Moon and Flying Snow – both very skilled in swordsmanship – and Flying Snow, whom is one of the only two assassins to have ever succeeded in penetrating into the King’s palace and almost committing his murder. We can deduce that Zhang Yimou ‘emphasizes heroines in his filmic versions of the historical story so that what he engenders is “gendered story”’, and that he ‘indirectly underscored the importance of the heroines and urged caution to those tempted to underestimate the heroines.’
Furthermore, 5th Generation filmmakers’ productions were visibly influenced by landscape paintings, and thus a particular visual style and set of aesthetics found themselves in films such as Zhang Yimou’s House of Flying Daggers (2004), and of course Hero. Indeed, beautiful and majestic landscapes like the ones featured in both films mentioned above, are metaphors for various human emotions in Chinese art. Moreover, the majesty of these landscapes emphasises their dominance over the human world; therefore, the land is dominating the characters, reducing them solely to small figures against the towering and prominent presence of the landscape. In fact, ‘Zhang Yimou said that the final blue-green lake scene’ brings a ‘Monet-like serenity to a dream flashback’ where a lake is ‘still as a mirror and where two men convey their sorrow through their swords like birds flying on the water, like dragonflies.’ This given description is very much picturesque and reminiscent of a landscape painting. Along with integrating landscape paintings in their films, 5th Generation filmmakers also resorted to using very prominent colours which they used to symbolise various emotions or messages; as we clearly see with the extensive use of colours in Hero.
To conclude, Zhang Yimou’s hero is visibly a 5th Generation filmmaker’s production as it incorporates, as this first part of the essay has discussed, many aspects and themes of not only the context it was born into, but also of Zhang Yimou’s past.
Part 2
To continue, we will be analysing a sequence of Zhang Yimou’s Hero all whilst considering its mise en scene, cinematography, editing, sound and performance. This sequence is approximately 50 minutes into the film.
It takes place during the second recount of Sky, Flying Snow and Broken Sword’s supposed assassinations by Nameless: The King of Qin’s imagined version of the events. It takes place at a lake, where Nameless, whom had previously killed Flying Snow, fights Broken Sword over her death.
Firstly, the mise en scene – the amalgamation of ‘setting, lighting, costume, and the behaviour of the figures’ – in this scene is strongly centred around water. In China, water is associated with calmness and serenity which can be linked to Flying Snow lying peacefully, although lifeless, atop a pagoda. Indeed, the aim in this scene ‘was to create a mood of serene mourning.’ But, water can also have negative connotations such as distress; possibly referring to how Broken Sword feels about Flying Snow’s death.
To continue, in this sequence we also note Zhang’s choice of costumes. Indeed, they are used to add to the aesthetics of the scene; but it can be argued that the colours of these costumes have somewhat of a significance. We notice that Broken Sword and Flying Snow are both dressed in blue garments, whereas Nameless is dressed in black. In China, the colour blue can suggest calmness- once again, referring to the peaceful and serene mourning of Flying Snow’s death. Nameless, dressed in black, expresses a certain mystery surrounding his persona, as Chinese culture suggests that black represents secrecy, something that is happening in the shadows.
In addition, the entirety of the scene is cast in a blue hue. Blue is the colour said to represent imagination, arguably used to show that it is the version of events imagined by the King. Indeed, as ‘each episode of the film is toned predominantly with one special colour’, this ‘could suggest that it is often difficult to see what is true or false’ However, we notice one element in the landscape that is coloured differently: a tree with red leaves. It could be referring to a previous scene in a forest in which Flying Snow and Moon engage in a fight which leads to Moon’s death; turning all the leaves in the vicinity red.
Finally, to briefly mention the lighting in this sequence – it appears to be generally natural as to let the landscape speak for itself in so far as creating an overall natural look and atmosphere. We could argue that the natural lighting links up to the fact that Flying Snow has passed away; as death is natural and she seems ‘to have returned to nature’ herself.
To continue the analysis by discussing cinematography, we notice that there are many wide shots of the landscape and of the confrontation between Nameless and Broken Sword. Once again, the importance and dominance of nature and the surrounding landscape is emphasised through this type of shot. It also belittles the characters, making them seem like ‘birds flying on the water, like dragonflies.’ We can also note the use of extreme close-ups to focus ‘on the clash of the weapons’, and how these ‘become part of each combatant’s body, providing an insight into how each man views his weapon. It is not a killing instrument; it is part of him.’ Furthermore, we observe the use of close-ups of Nameless and the King of Qin; in which they are always kept in the centre of the frame as to focus the audience’s attention solely on the character. Additionally, there are tighter framed mid shots of Nameless and Broken Sword as they fight- suggesting a certain focus on their movements and the character’s expression to make the battle that much more poetic and lyrical, rather than violent and inhuman.
As for the editing, its pace follows the rather slow flow of the action. The cuts made between the wide shots, close-ups, and mid shots of Nameless and Broken Sword visibly mimic the pace of the combat between the two characters; adding to the peaceful, ballet-like aspect of the scene, ‘creating wonderment rather than conflict, beauty rather than strength.’ Furthermore, the use of dissolves between the shots of the battle and the medium close-ups of the King of Qin show the audience that this is how he is imagining the events to have unfolded.
Sound in this sequence is rather subtle, suggesting that the audience should devote their undivided attention to the visuals rather than the audio. Indeed, this landscape is one that should be serene and peaceful, hence sound not being very prominent. Although, we do notice the diegetic sounds of birds and water that are considerably accentuated. Moreover, there is emphasis on the clanging and slashing of the swords- drawing the audience’s attention to the ongoing battle. As for non-diegetic sounds, a soft and subtle piano melody can be heard – building on the dancelike aspect of the fight. Additionally, there are background operatic vocals present; suggesting a certain divine-like aspect to the scene, as well contributing poetry and grace to the feel of the sequence.
Finally, the performance in this sequence of Hero is composed of Jet Li, a professional martial arts champion and actor, who plays the character of Nameless and Tony Leung, a Cannes Award Winning actor who plays the role of Broken Sword. Indeed, along with the other actors in Hero, it is evident that Zhang Yimou ‘has the entire Asian and world market in mind, and uses stardom to appeal to global audiences.’ Furthermore, Hero also had Tony Ching Siu Ting, whom had previously worked on Crouching Tiger (2000), work as a martial arts choreographer. Hero is also considered to be a wuxia film; a genre ‘featuring itinerant warriors of ancient China, often depicted as capable of superhuman feats of martial arts’ In this sequence, Nameless and Broken Sword both leap through the air and run across and under the water’s surface; taking part in a typically wuxia dancelike fight.
To conclude, through the use of the above mentioned cinematic concepts, in this scene we are put forward how Hero’s martial arts genre goes beyond the aspects of action and violence and touches on themes such as ballet, poetry and philosophy. Furthermore, we are also conveyed in many different ways the importance and dominance of nature over humans, as well as the significance of the swords in this scene as they are almost personified, and rendered to dangerously beautiful weapons.