In the past, traditional media policies (or information policies) primarily focused on public service broadcasting and the press. Media policies, mainly national, revolved around issues such as content regulation (content that reflects the national culture and identity and caters for both the majorities and minorities), market entry, media ownership, diversity and pluralism, censorship, etc. (Flew, 2007). In addition to that, the state oversaw the operation and provision of telecommunications services; therefore, media policies have always been controversial as it assumes states intervention (Iosifidis, 2011). However, the digital revolution, or the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution, has created a new media landscape. The rise in new such as think-tanks and transnational corporations (TNCs) like the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), UNESCO, the World Bank, etc. has also brought about change in decision making. Although governments linked communication policies to economic interests, serving the public interest is now a priority for new policy makers. In this case, as per Petros Iosifidis, the concept of public interest refers to “the collective cultural, political, social and informational benefits (openness, security, diversity and access) to the society which serves both the democratic processes of participation of all citizens to society and politics, and the well-being of people” (2011: 3). Information policies play an essential part in the welfare of a society and adapt according to their environment. Hence new types of policies and issues are emerging as the increasing information intensity brought by meta-technologies and new technological capacities are being developed (Braman, 2006).
Western and developed (high-income) countries have increasingly adopted a neoliberalist economy, thus the main driving force shaping media and communication policies has been the free market ideas, encouraging competition, enforcing intellectual property rights, promoting ICT-based exports and promoting foreign investment in communication-related industries as a development strategy; as well as enforcing stronger dynamics between citizen, the state and markets (Iosifidis, 2011; Chakravartty & Sarikaki, 2006). The neoliberalist ideology empowers the consumer, fosters freedom and creates the condition for market efficiency (Iosifidis, 2011). In addition to globalisation, other structural changes have also had an impact on media policy making in Western countries, such as privatisation, commercialisation, industry consolidation and policy reforms (ibid).
It is, however, more interesting analyse media policies and the role of ICTs as enablers and their effect in developing and low-income countries as they have most to gain from better communication and access to information. Nearly 6 billion people do not have access to high-speed internet, making them unable to participate in the digital revolution (World Bank, 2016).
‘Technologies of freedom’ (Pool, 1983) such as the Internet are thought of as the most ‘transformational communications breakthrough since the printing press and has started an open medium that provides freedom for everyone to innovate without permission’ (Iosifidis, 2011: 78). It is also considered a vital tool for development by the World Bank (2016). Hence, digital inclusion and financing affordable telecommunications access and ICT competence for low-income countries is a priority for policy makers. In fact, one of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals is to “significantly increase access to ICTs and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020 and to focus on means of implementation – the mobilization of financial resources – capacity building and technology, as well as data and institutionns” (UN, 2015). Thus, social programs and initiatives led by TNCs such as the World Bank, UNESCO and ITU mainly address the digital divides, issues of accessibility and affordability, but also deeper social and economic issues. Actually, the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG) were implemented to “acknowledge the centrality of access to ICTs as vital to the eradication of global poverty and hunger. As such, access to communication is considered a basic human need liked to participation in the modern economy and political activity” (ITU, 2003: 73). Moreover, Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that:
“Everyone has the right to freedom of expression and opinion; this right includes the freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.” (UN UNDH, 1948)
Media policies along with development programs are intended to promote positive social change and sustainable development, and address the huge disparities across and within countries by supporting a range of important goals and aspirations (Mansell, 2008). Furthermore, media policies in developing countries focus more on transforming the nation to a knowledge-based society and encourage economic growth. Of a global population of 7.4 billion people, more than 4 billion still do not have access to the internet, with 90% of them being in developing countries. Universal access to the internet has become a pressing issue and a foremost priority (World Bank, 2016). Following the World Bank’s World Development Report 2016, the Internet promotes inclusion, efficiency and innovation, and can benefit financial inclusion (e-banking and e-commerce), they contribute to social cohesion and expand health services (e-health). Therefore, it is highly encouraged that low-income countries prioritise the development of communication infrastructure and ICT skills among individuals. In addition to that, donors are interested in countries with thriving media sectors, and support to the media is tied to specific governance objectives such as countering corruption and strengthening elections, hence good governance is a priority in policy making (Wilton Park, 2013). In addition to that, e-governance is also one of the highest priority core poverty programs that can contribute to the reduction of poverty and the achievement of sustained economic growth and development (Elder, 2005). Initiatives such as the African Information Society Initiative have been successful as they encourage the liberalisation of national telecommunications and broadcasting, the creation of national ICT policies and articulation national e-government strategies (ibid). Hence policies should support a favourable business climate (low market entry, expand opportunities), boost growth, strong human capital, good governance and improved service delivery; with also a strong emphasis on plurality, diversity, social inclusion, well-being (health, education, literacy and human rights issues) and participation, empowering women and children, fostering mutual understanding, peace and reconciliation. As ICTs are acknowledged as a target area and enabler in the MDGs, it is crucial to note that the notion of knowledge is central to social, economic, political and cultural changes, as per the report by UNESCO ‘Towards Knowledge Societies’ (2005).
However, media policies do not come without critics. According to Daya Thussu, at the heart of globalisation and modernisation theories is the notion that communication is used to diffuse and transfer Western ideologies, and political and economic models to developing nations of the global South (2010). Therefore, policy makers must be make it their priority to implement policy reforms and create new policies according to the country’s political and economic situation and the state of the media, as digital technologies also have the power to worsen inequalities. They must consider the environment they are working in: where rule of law is weak and development gains are harder to achieve (Wilton Park, 2013) They must focus on creating sustainable development before following Western trends, as the media do not have the same potential in every society, nor are they accessible to everyone in the same way and to the same extent. Thus, only when they have empowered and educated individuals and communities, created infrastructure and defined political and economic goals, can the media policy makers focus on promoting democratisation and aim for high-income country development goals (Nyamnjoh, 2005).