The University of Texas at Austin
Sarah and Ernest Butler School of Music- College of Fine Arts
DMA Specialized Comprehensive Examination
Beethoven and his Fugal style
by
Shih-Ting Wu
Prof. GREGORY ALLEN, MAR.2017
A PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
in
PIANO PERFORMANCE
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN
MARCH 2017 ©SHIH-TING WU, 2017
Ada Shih-Ting Wu
DMA Comp Exam Question
March 15, 2017
Please provide an essay revealing the results of your research into Beethoven’s fugal writing in his late period. In what ways did he transform the traditional Baroque techniques to suit his gradual progress toward Romanticism? (In answering this question, please make some reference to earlier movements that contain fugal writing, such as Op. 10#2, Op. 35, 3rd Concerto last movement, the Eroica Symphony Funeral March, etc.)
Although your stated focus is on the last 5 Sonatas, be sure to mention the Diabelli Variations, the late string quartets and the 9th Symphony.
Please include musical examples, with measure numbers, and a bibliography.
Submit via email attachment by March 26.
-Introduction-
The music maestro – Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) had composed great variety of genres from sonata, symphony, variation, Bagatelle, ballet, opera, mass, missa…etc. within the setting of instrumental solo, chamber, choral. Orchestral or even larger. He is known as a bridge across between Classicism to Romanticism. He inherited the tradition from Classical era, and opened up the new words and thoughts, which also cause his music in different periods contain distinct styles. Moreover, Beethoven also took over the ideas from Baroque era, especially the contrapuntal idea can be seen everywhere in his music. Along these lines, his music is memorable of early eras and influential to later periods. The topic of this paper is going to talk about the fugal technique from Baroque were brought back in his compositions, especially show in his last five piano sonatas and many of his later works noticeably with many alternative changes. It is critical to discover how he processed and developed the heritage to his own styles and began a new era by him. First of all, his life can be divided into four periods- the years in Bonn, the early time in Vienna, the maturity period, and the final period. These four periods reflect to his compositional styles. I will be exploring the evolution of fugal technique from the 17th century to Beethoven’s mentors, and himself. I will be also figuring out the similarities and differences step by step from Beethoven’s admirations to see the progression of Beethoven’s different fugal styles in his early and later times. Besides, it’s also interesting to observe how he incorporated fugue in his modern form. After all, the above investigations of fugal technique from the 18th century to the beginning of romantic era and the comparison of his early and later fugal styles, it helps us to understand interpret Beethoven’s music with clear clarification, and be more admirable to his fugal method.
-Ludwig van Beethoven and his four periods-
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) was born in Bonn, Germany in December 1770, and died in Vienna in March 1827 at the age of 56. During these fifty-six years, he had made influential innovations with his four periods of style over the western historical periods from Classicism to Romanticism. From “New Grove Online” and the book of “Beethoven: the music and the life” by Lewis Lockwood, they divided his life and compositional style basically into four similar blocks- the years in Bonn, the early Vienna period, the middle period, and the final years.
Beethoven hadn’t made significant markings during the years (ca.1770-1791) in Bonn. But the years still mean something of his life. He started his journey of compositional training with Christian Gottlob Neefe. Without his early training in Bonn, he might not be able to be as the Beethoven we have known now. Then, the first shift was made when he moved to Vienna and started his training of composition with Joseph Haydn during the early years in Vienna (ca.1792-1802). Here, he developed the thematic configuration from his mentor Haydn, which one to multi-motives appear throughout all movements. This technique had existed till the end of his life and become influential afterwards. He continued developing the admiration of Bach from Baroque, and Haydn and Mozart’s tradition within Classicism, and also established his solid style, like dramatic dynamic, rhythmic and harmonic siftings. However, at the last moment of his early Vienna years, the deafness came to him, and his compositional style started to depart further. Subsequently, the years from ca.1802 to 1812 were the most brilliant and mature period of his composition. He began a series of heroic subline, which influenced throughout his compositions afterwards. Additionally, he kept developing and inventing his old and new in his music, but he started to focus on more philosophical aspect. He had expressed his inner side either his personal emotions or the thoughts of political environment in his music. However, in his late period (ca.1813-1827), since he was suffering of his deafness, emotional disorder, financial issue…etc., the period must be the most complex and hard time to him. Nonetheless, he threw out all his hardness, and made a combination with contrasting ideas. The older traditions brought back more repeatedly, and the contrapuntal technique also appeared in here more frequently. The last five piano sonatas show his combination of older traditions, and new inventions. For instance, interestingly, the fugal technique was used in all of his late piano sonatas, but the form became extremely unstable. All in all, Beethoven had been dealing with the old traditions from Baroque and creating the new inventions in entire compositional life, and exploded all his energy at the end of his life to establish a new era – Romanticism.
-Fugue-
The term “fugue” is a type of contrapuntal compositional technique in two or more voices, and all voices are imitating each other. The first entering voice holds an important role to play a short melody as subject, and others follow by it. The exposition is a section from beginning that all the voices interact the subjective melody, and when all voices enter, the exposition ends. The voices are interacting each other as subject and answer in tonic and dominant in the exposition. Then, it connects to a transition, episode to develop the exposition, and it will keep alternating with keys when the subject comes back to tonic, which is often attached by a coda. But the keys and form can be alternated by different composers in different genre. There are many types of fugue, such as one subject fugue, countersubject fugue, double fugue, or triple fugue.
Historically, fugue was first introduced in the 14th century as the function of imitative counterpoint that similar to canonic technique. The definition of “fugue” at the first appearance during the century. was unclear as canonic function with two or more voices that the other terms “chase” and “caccia” were specified in a similar definition as voices’ imitation. Starting from the 15th century during the high Renaissance, “fugue” had gradually become an independently compositional technique with an own explanation. Composers began to use fugue as a compositional technique more often, and desisted from canonic technique. Fugue” started to be made a distinct definition as a contrapuntal technique with non-canonic imitation for many parts or voices within a short melody or phrase is introduced by a voice, taking over to other voice with similarities and develop themselves. A Renaissance composer and theorist – Johannes Tinctoris defined fugue as “the sameness of the voice parts in a composition. The notes and rests of voice parts are identical in rhythmic value, name, shape, and sometimes even location on the staff.” However, turning to the 16th century, to be clearly identified in between either fugue and canon or fugue and imitation, Ramos de Pareja first introduced imitation officially in his music, which seems he was also the first person using fugue officially. And Zarlino discussed the imitative counterpoint in his book of counterpoint to distinguish the difference of imitation and fugue. Only the pieces contained strictly canonic imitation, which could be grouped as fugue. Additionally, Palestrina set a model of fugal writing, which also influenced into the instrumental music of the 17th century, and Johann Joseph Fux wrote set of textbooks that departed from Palestrina’s fundamental ideas but against his method as well. As it had been developed sufficiently and efficiently during the 17th century, it was leaded to a climax into the early 18th century of the late Baroque era, especially to the most presentative composer – Johann Sebastian Bach. In his early compositions, his fugues were based on non-canonic imitation. After the experiment during the early years, he started to incorporate with harmony and modulation in his keyboard and organ fugues. The most well-known and remarkable sets of keyboard fugues must be his “The Well-Tempered Clavier” in two volumes, which is called as musical bible, and Bach often paired fugues with preludes. After the golden age represented by Bach, many composers have been following the tradition on his fugal style afterwards.
-The transformation from Baroque to Beethoven-
Before understanding Beethoven’s counterpoint and fugal writing, it is better to know the relationship towards to the 17th and 18th century. By tracing into the Baroque elements on Beethoven’s music, it must relate to the most representative composer of Baroque era – Johann Sebastian Bach. Both of them were the bridges across from Baroque to Classical and Classical to Romantic era. Bach is one of Beethoven’s mentor, which often be seen in his letters, especially a letter from Vienna on April 22nd, 1801, he writes to the publishing house of Breitkopf and Hartel:
“A good friend whom I recently visited showed me to account of what had been collected for the daughter of Immortal God of Harmony. I was astonished at the small sum which Germany, and especially your Germany, has dedicated to this person whom I so highly esteem because of her father. This brings me to the thought: How would it be if I brought out something for her benefit on a subscription basis…? Write me quickly how this would best be possible, so that it may happen before this Bach daughter dies, before this brook [Bach] dries up and we can no longer water it. That you must be the publisher, goes without saying.”
Obviously, he showed his admiration of J.S. Bach in this letter intensively. Beethoven bought all of Bach published works, and played it attractively. But it is discussable whether Beethoven’s fugal writing was from J.S Bach’s inspiration or someone else. Elinore Barber stated that Beethoven had admired Bach more on his virtuosity and harmonic progression rather than fugal writing. Although we cannot see the direct influence of fugue from Bach in Beethoven’s fugues, but there are still some symbolic connections in their music. By way of illustration, as Bach’s “The Well-Tempered Clavier” was written in pairs of prelude and fugue, it also reflected on many of Beethoven’s works. Such as the last five piano sonatas or the Eroica variations and the Diabelli variations, which all the fugues come after a slow introduction as preparation and it reflects to the similar function as preludes in Bach’s “The Well-Tempered Clavier”. I will dig into more details below when we discuss Beethoven’s fugal music individually.
Now to back the topic then, after Bach’s death, the classical period started. Since Beethoven was born in this time, many of development and invention had departed here. After Beethoven moved to Vienna, he had studied composition with two masters – Joseph Haydn and Johann Georg Albrechtsberger. In the article of Beethoven’s early Fugal style, A. E. F. Dickinson has mentioned how Albrechtsberger’s fugal style influenced to Beethoven’s early fugal writing. He taught Beethoven in two different ways of fugal writing: one is the serious fugal writing that follows the strict rules from Fux’s tradition; another is the freer fugal writing that Albrechtsberger gave Beethoven much more freedom without too many restrictions on his fugal writing. Furthermore, before getting to explore Beethoven’s fugal style, it’s interesting to see a broad connection to Johann Joseph Fux’s Gradus ad Parnassum from the early 18th century. This publication is based on Palestrina’s tradition of contrapuntal technique, but rearranged in a modern way to suit in the early 18th century with various techniques of contrapuntal writing from easy to hard. All the composers are mentioned above, like J.S. Bach, Mozart, Haydn, Albrechtsberger and Beethoven had studied from Fux’s method.. After see the connections from early time, Beethoven took their characteristics and started writing his method.
-The early and later fugal styles in Beethoven-
From previous points, Beethoven had studied composition with three teachers – Christian Gottlob Neefe, Franz Joseph Haydn and Johann Georg Albrechtsberger. And his fugue writing must relate from the training of these three teachers in different ways. Although many scholars mention that his fugal technique was influenced from Albrechtsberger strictly, he had already written some exercises by using fugal or fugato techniques earlier before they met in 1794. To sum it up, Beethoven already had the acknowledge of fugal writing in his young time. Neefe helped the development of Beethoven’s counterpoint mentally, which counterpoint and polyphony were written down simply; Haydn provided the basic preparation of non-strictly acknowledge of counterpoint before he started the training of both strict and freer counterpoint with Albrechtsberger. However, after he had been trained by these three different teachers, and had experienced many sufferings of his life step by step, Alberchtsberger’s fugal method finally came to Beethoven’s head with the admiration of Bach and developed it and made his own in the later works comprehensively. See Table 1, Beethoven did not compose any major fugal music in Bonn, and the first few years in Vienna as Haydn’s pupil. But numerous of fugal compositions were written right after the training with Albrechtsberger, especially more fugal works were completed in his final period from 1813 to 1827.
Although Beethoven had been dealing with contrapuntal music in his entire life, right after he started the training with Albrechtsberger, Beethoven started his fugal writing officially. However, there was a few years’ gap of his fugal composition. So we divide his fugal
Table 1: Beethoven’s major compositions in fugal style
Opus number
Title
Date of publication
10-2
Piano Sonata No. 6 in F major, Op. 10 no. 2
1798
35
Variations and Fugue in E-flat major, Op.35
1803
37
Piano Concerto No. 3 in C minor, Op. 37
1804
55
Symphony No. 3 in E♭ major, Opus 55
1806/1809
59-3
String Quartet No. 9 in C major, Op.59 No.3
1808
101
Piano Sonata No. 28 in A major, Op. 101
1817
102
Cello Sonata No.5 in D major, Op. 102, No.2
1816
106
Piano Sonata No. 29 in B-flat major, Op. 106
1819
110
Piano Sonata No. 31 in A-flat major, Op. 110
1822
111
Piano Sonata No. 32 in C minor, Op. 111
1822
120
33 Variations on a waltz by Anton Diabelli, Op. 120
1824
125
Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125
1826
130
String Quartet No. 13 in B♭ major, op. 130
1827
131
String Quartet No. 14 in C♯ minor, Op. 131
1827
133
String Quartet No. 17 in B-flat major, Op. 133, Grosse Fuge
1827
composition into two seasons – early (See Table 1, green section) and later (See Table 1, red section). The early period started from the study of Albrechtsberger in between ca. 1794 to 1795. This one to two years training contained a great variety of strict contrapuntal technique based on Fux’s method with slice different that the major and minor keys (relative keys) were introduced to replace the old modes of Fux’s counterpoint. And also learned the freer counterpoint style with less restriction on fugal writing, which further departed from Fux or earlier composers. After a rest of his fugal writing, he restarted his fugal writing in the last period intensively, where we will be focusing on this majority part in depth by comparisons of the early and later examples in different genres.
Fugue in Variation form
As the example of his early period – The fifteen Variations and Fugue in E-flat major, Op.35 (1803), is the first completed fugue with publication in Beethoven. The fugue starts after the last variation in Largo. This similar fugal setting in variation form also exists on his later variations Op. 120 that a double fugue comes after a slow variation. Moreover, in Op. 35, the theme is from a heroic and sublime theme, which also appears in the last movement of Symphony No.3 and The Ballet of Creatures of Prometheus. See Figure 1.
Additionally, this fugue starts as the final of the theme and variations in three voice double fugue with two mirrored subjects into two sections. It comes with a slow variation before it, and comes by a fast and brilliant passage to end the piece. See Figure 2.
Figure 1: Themes on Heroic sublime
(a) The fifteen Variations and Fugue in E-flat major, Op.35, theme, mm.
(b) Symphony No. 3 in E♭ major, Opus 55, movement 4, mm. 25-28
(c) The Ballet of Creatures of Prometheus, mm. 25-28
Source: Robert Schumann, Robert Schumann’s Compositionen für das Pianoforte, Band 4, ed. Conrad Kühner
(Baunschweig: Henry Litolff’s Verlag, ca. 1880), Plate 1704.
Figure 2: mirrored subjects on the Finale, Alla Fugue
in Variations and Fugue in E-flat major, Op.35
(a) The first subject, mm.
(b) The second subject, mm. 25-28
Source: Robert Schumann, Robert Schumann’s Compositionen für das Pianoforte, Band 4, ed. Conrad Kühner
(Baunschweig: Henry Litolff’s Verlag, ca. 1880), Plate 1704.
However, about 20 years later, in 1824, a new set of variations was published – The 33 Variations on a waltz by Anton Diabelli, Op. 120. Around that time, Beethoven also composed the Missa solemnis in D and the last three piano sonatas. And this work is a combination of all pieces’ above written in counterpoint, fugue, canon, and variation. This triple fugue becomes as a variation independently in variation 32, The fughetta was written based on a waltz of theme, and circulated it thoroughly. And it also comes with a slower variation before, and a faster variation to finish this work. See Figure 3.
Figure 3: The theme and subject
in The 33 Variations on a waltz by Anton Diabelli, Op. 120
(a) The theme from Waltz, mm.
(b) The subject in variation 32, mm. 25-28
Source: Robert Schumann, Robert Schumann’s Compositionen für das Pianoforte, Band 4, ed. Conrad Kühner
(Baunschweig: Henry Litolff’s Verlag, ca. 1880), Plate 1704.
Similarly, these two sets of theme and variations are both played in contrapuntally imitative and canonic cycles entirely. Moreover, both of them are starting their fugue with a slow intro and end the whole piece after a brilliant passage.
Fugue in piano sonatas
This is the section that I will be discussing the most in depth, since his last five piano sonatas were all written with a style of fugue interestingly with deepen extension of compositional technique in many ways. Beethoven’s 32 piano sonatas is a model of future composers as J.S. Bach’s “The Well-Tempered Clavier”. In Beethoven’s piano sonatas, he expanded the variety of the structure and form in his sonatas, which he put scherzo, variation, funeral march into sonatas. Likewise, he also started to use the thematic configuration through all movements that makes the blurry in between each movement.
The example from early fugal style must be taken from the Sonata No. 6 in F major, Op. 10 no. 2, movement 3, which is the first fugal element written in sonata form with four measures motive on left hand. See Figure 4.
Figure 4: The 4 measure motive
in the Sonata No. 6 in F major, Op. 10 no. 2, movement III
Source: Robert Schumann, Robert Schumann’s Compositionen für das Pianoforte, Band 4, ed. Conrad Kühner
(Baunschweig: Henry Litolff’s Verlag, ca. 1880), Plate 1704.
Beethoven had written many small fugal elements like that in his piano sonatas. However, the fugal writing is not written in a formal way until his final period. Beethoven’s last five sonatas Op. 101, 106, 109, 110, and 111 are all in an unclear movement setting. Except op.109, other four come with a slow or improvisatory passage as a preparation before build up to a vivid fugue. See Table 2.
Table 2: The fugues in last five piano sonatas
Opus number
Movement/section
Op.101
Movement IV-Development
Op.106
Movement I-Development
Movement IV-After Introduction
Op.109
Movement III-Variation V
Op.110
Movement III
Op.111
Movement I-Development
Fugue in string quartets
The String Quartet No. 9 in C major, Op.59 No.3, Movement IV is in a fugal sonata form, was written early in 1806. As an example taken from this movement of this string quartet No. 3, this is single subjective fugue, started by viola, and the subject interact in between these four strings simply. See Figure .
Figure: The 4 measure motive
in The String Quartet No. 9 in C major, Op.59 No.3, Movement IV
Source: Robert Schumann, Robert Schumann’s Compositionen für das Pianoforte, Band 4, ed. Conrad Kühner
(Baunschweig: Henry Litolff’s Verlag, ca. 1880), Plate 1704.
However, in contrary, the String Quartet No. 17 in B-flat major, Op. 133, Grosse Fuge must be one of the most representative and most accomplished fugal work in Beethoven. Actually, it was written first as the final movement of the string quartet Op.130. But Beethoven decided to take it out and became an integrated work in single movement as double fugue. It starts with an introductory overture, then comes with two contrary subjects. As other final in later fugues, such as the final movement of ninth symphony, it is a combination in variation, sonata, and fugal forms. See Figure.
Figure : Contrasting subjects
on the String Quartet No. 17 in B-flat major, Op. 133, Grosse Fuge
(a) The first subject, mm.
(b) The second subject, mm. 25-28
Source: Robert Schumann, Robert Schumann’s Compositionen für das Pianoforte, Band 4, ed. Conrad Kühner
(Baunschweig: Henry Litolff’s Verlag, ca. 1880), Plate 1704.
Fugue in symphonies
The fugue in the last movement of Symphony No. 3 in E♭ major, Opus 55, Eroica shares the same theme with Variations and Fugue, Op.35. See Figure 1. This movement is in a combination of sonata, rondo and variation forms in writing in similar of op.35 as reflection. 寫更多
Nonetheless, Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, movement 4 is in a variation form, and the fugue comes on variation 7 in two sections as double fugue.
Figure 3: The theme and subjects
in The Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125, movement 4
(a) The theme from Waltz, mm.
(b) The 1st subject in variation 32, mm. 25-28
(c) The 2nd subject in variation 32, mm. 25-28
Source: Robert Schumann, Robert Schumann’s Compositionen für das Pianoforte, Band 4, ed. Conrad Kühner
(Baunschweig: Henry Litolff’s Verlag, ca. 1880), Plate 1704.
Early vs. later
Hence, interestingly, Beethoven had composed each above genre both in early and later times. The early fugal style was already developed from his mentors, but haven’t been mature as later yet. His later fugal style contains more variety of techniques. Examples include that the fugues are placed in more variety of forms, the fugue can be as an independent work in string quartet solidly. Doubtless, his fugal style must be influential as a reception towards Romanticism.
-Conclusion-
To make a summing up, after the exploration in Beethoven’s fugal writing, I see a dramatic progression of fugal style from the 17th century throughout Baroque and Classical era to reach the romanticism. Beethoven brought the unbelievable possibility on fugal writing from his early to later styles. Unlike the fugue in Baroque, which was normally in a religious and philosophical aesthetic, he loss up the serious respect on fugal composition, bring it into other forms, settings. The Scholar Charles Rosen mentioned in his book – Beethoven’s Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion:
“What he did was to reexamine and transform the principles by which he had been working throughout his whole career……A concomitant aspect of this project was his attempt to rethink the principles of counterpoint that he had learned from Bach and Haydn……, and create a new form of counterpoint out of the reconsideration……The fugue may sound modern to our ears, but it includes almost every traditional academic device of fugue……The sonata was not conceived as a classical monument or an act of piety, but as an act of violence that sought paradoxically to reconquer a tradition in a time of revolution by making it radically new.”
His respect on Baroque composer J.S. Bach and his mentors of compositional training Neefe, Haydn and Albrechtsberger influenced in his compositions remarkably. By the comparing the fugal elements and works in between his early and later styles in different form and genres, it is interesting to see the conspicuous evolution in his compositional life, and from earlier periods. Thus, he provided us an appreciable example that music can be in all the possibility, there is no strict limitation, and everything can be happened by your hands.
-Works Cited-
Articles/Books
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Barber, Elinore. “Beethoven and Bach.” Bach 1, no. 4 (1970): 4-5.
Cockshoot, John V. The Fugue in Beethoven’s Piano Music. Routledge & K. Paul, 1959.
Dickinson, A. E. F. “Beethoven’s Early Fugal Style.” The Musical Times 96, no. 1344 (1955): 76-79.
E. L. B. “Beethoven on Bach: Excerpts from Letters.” Bach 1, no. 4 (1970): 6-8.
“Fugue.” The Oxford Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. rev. Oxford Music Online.
Oxford University Press.
Hughes, Walden. “BEETHOVEN’S PIANO SONATAS The Final Decade.”
American Music Teacher 37, no. 1 (1987): 16-19.
Joseph Kerman, et al. “Beethoven, Ludwig van.” Grove Music Online.
Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press.
Lockwood, Lewis. Beethoven: the music and the life. New York: W.W. Norton, 2005.
Misch, Ludwig, and G. I. C. DeCourcy. “Fugue and Fugato in Beethoven’s Variation Form.”
The Musical Quarterly 42, no. 1 (1956): 14-27.
Paul M. Walker. “Fugue.” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press.
Rosen, Charles. Beethoven’s Piano Sonatas: A Short Companion. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002.
RUMPH, STEPHEN. Beethoven after Napoleon: Political Romanticism in the Late Works.
University of California Press, 2004.
Schindler, Anton, Donald W. MacArdle, and Constance S. Jolly. Beethoven as I knew him.
Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1996.
Werner, Jack. “.” The Musical Times 96, no. 1349 (1955): 377.
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