PaStress is a frequently talked about phenomenon in our society today.
Unfortunately, major accidents, such as airplane crashes, car crashes, and fires,
happen relatively frequently in industrial societies (Nezu, Nezu, Geller, & Weiner,
2003). However, they still generally take individuals by surprise, require readjustment
efforts, and change the course of numerous lives. Some experiences will be life lasting
and will impact both their mental and physical health; for others, it will only be a
short term influence (Nezu et al., 2003). Humans all experience stress in one form or
another, whether it is in school, work, home, or trying to make ends meet. Many
individuals see stress as something that is negative, destructive, and disabling
(Thornes, 2005).
Not all stress is bad (Thornes, 2005). For example, winning the lottery or
passing ones drivers test can be seen as positive stress and may be experienced as an
exhilarating event. Stress is a very complex process and there are three different, but
intersecting methods to the definition of stress (Broome & Llewelyn, 1995). Stress
can be conceptualized as a noxious or aversive characteristic of the environment
(Broome & Llewelyn, 1995). Stress can be defined in terms of the physiological
effects it produces to aversive or noxious stimuli (Broome & Llewelyn, 1995). Stress
can be conceptualized in terms of the dynamic interaction between the environment
and person (Broome & Llewelyn, 1995). Stress is a well-studied phenomenon and a
lot is currently known about it.
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Benefits of Stress
Living beings all experience stress in one form or another, whether it is in
work, school, home, or with friends or family. Although many people see stress as
something that is negative, bad, or destructive, stress can have some benefits
(Thornes, 2005). There is evidence that stress is not always bad. Dhabhar et al. (2010)
examined the short term fight-or-flight response that is experienced during immune
activation in mice. Mice were exposed to ultraviolet B three times per week to study
the emergence, progression, and regression of squamous cell carcinoma (Dhabhar et
al., 2010). Short-term stress was administrated to one group 2.5 hours before each 10
minute ultraviolet exposer session by placing them in a ventilated plastic tube
restrainer. Tumors were measured weekly and tissue samples were collected (Dhabhar
et al., 2010). It was found that compared to the control group, the short term stress
group showed lower tumor numbers and lower percentage of mice bearing tumors
during the earlier phases of tumor development and progression. Acute stress then
may have helped to enhance cellular immunity and increase resistance to ultraviolet
induced squamous cell carcinoma (Dhabhar et al., 2010). Short term stress in this
instance enhanced the immune responsiveness.
Effects of Stress in Overall Life Satisfaction
How an individual copes with the stressors that they are faced with can affect
their physical health, mental health, and emotional maladjustment; stress can impact
an individual’s overall quality of life and overall life satisfaction (Hamarat et al.,
2001). The relationship between overall life satisfaction and stress has been well
studied (e.g., Chang, 1998; Nowack, 1991). Chang examined the relationship between
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measures of perceived stress and dispositional optimism with 400 undergraduate
college students. Participants were given surveys to complete that included, the
Perceived Stress Scale, the Life Orientation Test, the Beck Depression Inventory, and
the Satisfaction with Life Scale. It was found that dispositional optimism greatly
moderated the association between psychological well-being and stress (Chang,
1998). Perceived stress was associated with lower life satisfaction and greater
depressive symptoms in participants (Chang, 1998).
As one ages, there are numerous changes one is faced with, such as role
changes and increased or decreased demands. In a cross-sectional investigation,
Hamarat et al. (2001) looked at the relationship between perceived stress on life
satisfaction and coping resources satisfaction and the difference in 189 older adults,
middle aged adults, and younger adults when looking at these relationships.
Participants were given the Coping Resources Inventory for Stress, the Perceived
Stress Scale, and the Satisfaction with Life Scale to complete. It was found that
perceived stress and coping resource effectiveness were important predictors for life
satisfaction for all three groups (Hamarat et al., 1991). However, for younger adults, a
better predictor for life satisfaction was perceived stress. For the middle aged and
older adults group, it was found that coping resource effectiveness was a superior
predictor life satisfaction (Hamarat et al., 1991). An individual’s stage in life then
appears to impacts the degree in which variables predict satisfaction with life. Coping
resource and perceived stress are predictors of overall satisfaction with life for every
age group (Hamarat et al., 1991).
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Stress and Locus of Control
One factor that impacts an individual’s ability to cope with stressful life event
that they are faced with is their locus of control; that is the self-confidence that they
have that they have some control over the happenings that form their lives (Brannon et
al., 2014). Individuals who trust that they have control over their own lives have an
internal locus of control. In contrast, individuals who believe that fate, luck, or the
acts of others decide their lives have an external locus of control (Brannon et al.,
2014). Schmitz, Neuman, and Oppermann (2000) looked at the effects of work related
stress and locus of control on the burnout in 361 hospital staff nurses. All participants
were given the Locus of Control Questionnaire, the Maslach Burnout Inventory, and a
Work-Related Stress Inventory to complete. It was found that nurses who believed
that they had limited to no control over the proceedings of their lives were more much
more susceptible to stress and burnout when compared to nurses who believed that
they had personal control over the proceedings in their lives (Schmitz et al., 2000).
Perceived level of control then is crucial in levels of stress and burnout.
Stress and Coping Strategies
Individuals are continually trying to manage and cope with the stress in their
lives. Coping strategies can generally be classified into two different categories:
problem focused coping and emotion focused coping (Brannon et al., 2014). Problem
focused coping involves solving the problem one is faced with (Brannon et al., 2014).
Emotion focused coping encompasses managing the distressed that is associated with
the stress an individual is faced with (Brannon et al., 2014).
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Problem focused coping. Problem focused coping encompasses trying to
decrease the stress by solving the problem one is faced with. Problem focused coping
includes seeking information, taking whatever action is necessary to resolve the issue,
and/or changing ones behaviour (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2014). Stoneman,
Gavidia-Payne, and Floyd (2006) examined associations between stress, problem
focused coping, and marital adjustment in 67 families with a young child with
disabilities. Fathers who utilized more problem focused coping were more positive
about their marriages (Stoneman et al., 2006). Wives reported high marital adjustment
when their husbands utilized more problem focused coping strategies (Stoneman et
al., 2006).
Essex, Seltzer, and Krauss (1999) examined stress and coping strategies
among 133 married fathers and mothers of adults with mental retardation in a
longitudinal study. Although it was found that there were no significant differences
between fathers and mothers in regards to the utilization of emotion focused coping, it
was found that mothers used more problem focused coping when compared to their
husbands. For mothers, a higher frequency use of problem focused coping strategies
and lesser utilization of emotion focused coping aided to buffer the impact of
caregiving stress (Essex et al., 1999). Problem focused coping can help individuals
reduce their stress by solving the problem that they are faced with.
Emotion focused coping. Attempting to reduce emotional responses to a
stressful event without actually altering the situation one is faced with is emotion
focused coping (Gallagher & Nelson, 2003). Emotion focused coping are designed to
alter reactions to the stressor rather than change or control the stressor (Gallaher &
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Nelson, 2003). Patterson (2003) examined the effect of coping and social support on
distress in 233 police officers who often worked in an environment characterized by
dangerous circumstances with the distribution of surveys. All participants were given
a postage-paid envelope addressed to the researcher to return the questionnaires
anonymously. Seeking social support in particular helped to buffer the relationship
between distress and life events (Patterson, 2003). Emotion focused coping in general
was found to buffer the relationship between life events and distress (Patterson, 2003).
In order to study the impact of social support and coping on the adaptation of
Type II diabetes mellitus of elderly Chinese patients, Cheng and Boey (2000)
interviewed 200 subjects ranging from age 60-92 using a structured questionnaire. It
was found that support outside of one’s family, rather than family support, was a more
important part in adapting to diabetes mellitus. The psychological well-being then of
the elderly diabetic patients may be enhanced through the expansion of the friend
network (Cheng & Boey, 2000). Social support networks where the disclosures of
negative feelings are met with support and warm acceptance may allow elderly
patients to better enjoy and adapt to diabetes mellitus (Cheng & Boey, 2000).
All individuals must face stress throughout their lives, making them at risk of
developing emotional problems (Kraaij, Garnefski, & Maes, 2002). An individual’s
coping strategies and coping resources availability impacts ones susceptibility of
developing emotional problems in response to stress that they are faced with (Brannon
et al., 2014). Oftentimes, problem focused coping has advantages over emotion
focused coping as problem focused coping has the potential to actually change the
situation; individuals are generally more likely to use problem focused coping when
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they appraise a satiation as controllable (Brannon et al., 2014). For example, if an
upcoming exam is causing an individual stress, an individual can make a plan to go
ask their professor for some additional help if this situation is appraised as
controllable. However, emotion focused coping can be very effective when stress is
inescapable and finding a way to feel better may be a superior option (Brannon et al.,
2014). For example, an individual who needs to go in for dental surgery has few
problem focused coping strategies that they can utilize. However, complaining about
the dental surgery to a friend may help to manage the stress. All types of coping
strategies can be effective depending on the stressor that is faced (Brannon et al.,
2014).
Stress and Traditional Learning Environment
There is currently an increase of enrollment in degree granting institutions in
the United States (NCES, 2013). Between 2001 and 2011, there was an enrollment
increase of 32%, increasing from 15.9 million students to 21.0 million students
(NCES, 2013). College students as a whole are particularly prone to high levels of
stress (D’Zurilla & Sheedy, 1991). There are numerous transitions that college
students who attend traditional learning environments must adjust to including for the
first time, being away from home, sustaining a high level of academic achievement,
and pressures related to finding a life partner or a job (Ross et al., 1999). Ross et al.
surveyed 100 undergraduate students to examine the most prevalent origin of stress
among college students at a mid-sized university and the nature of the identified
stressors. The Student Stress Survey was used and distributed to the participants (Ross
et al., 1999). It was found that the most common sources of stress were intrapersonal
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causes of stress and included sleeping habit changes and eating practices,
vacation/breaks, class workload increases, and new responsibilities (Ross et al., 1999).
It was also found that changes in social activities and financial difficulties were also
frequently reported as stressors by participants (Ross et al., 1999).
Abouserie (1994) examined sources and levels on stress in 675 second year
undergraduate students. The Academic Stress Questionnaire Life Stress
Questionnaire, Multidimensional Multi-Attributional Scale Causality, and Rosenberg
Self Esteem Scale were given to participants to complete. The results indicated that
examinations and the results of examinations were the highest causes of stress
(Abouserie, 1994). It was also found that 77.6% of students were identified to belong
to moderate stress categories and 10.4% of participants were identified to belong to
serious stress categories (Abouserie, 1994)
Beck, Hackett, Srivastava, McKim, and Rockwell (1997) examined sources of
stress and the perception of level of stress in students in nursing, pharmacy and social
work programs. A total of 552 full time university students completed the Beck
Srivastava Stress Inventory, the General Health Questionnaire, and a demographic
profile in this correlational study. It was found that baccalaureate nursing students
perceived higher levels of stress and more psychological and physical symptoms
when compared to students in pharmacy or social work programs (Beck et al., 1997).
However, it was also found that regardless of discipline, the amount of class material
that had to be learned, exams, absence of free time, extensive hours of studying,
grades, and difficulty of work that had to be learned were all identified as common
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stressors (Beck et al., 1997). It is clear that in the traditional learning environment in a
college setting, stress is prevalent and sources of stress are numerous.
Gender
Gender differences in students stress levels has been found in students in
traditional learning settings. Peterlini, Tibério, Saadeh, Pereira, and Martins (2002)
performed screening, follow-up, and comparative evaluation of anxiety and
depression in 59 first year internal medicine residents. All participants completed the
Beck Depression Inventory and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory in the
last week of every rotation. It was found that female students had greater levels of
symptoms of both anxiety and depression when compared to the male students
(Peterlini et al., 2002).
Matheny, Ashby, and Cupp (2005) examined stressful life events, coping
resources, and illness in 127 female and 60 male graduate students. All participants
completed the Seriousness of Illness Rating Scale, the Psychiatric Epidemiology
Research Interview, the Coping Resources Inventory for Stress, and provided
demographic data. It was found that females reported more illness when compared to
male students (Matheny et al., 2005). In fact, it was found that gender contributed
more to the distinguishing of low and high illness groups than any other variable
studied (Matheny et al., 2005). Gender appears to play a role in stress in students.
Effects of Stress on Academic Performance
There has been a large volume of research that has focused on the relationship
between academic performance and stress. College students have numerous
challenges that they must face as they are in their pursuit of higher education and
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these challenges may impact academic performance. In order to examine the
relationship between stress and academic performance, Stewart et al. (1999) obtained
longitudinal data on 121 first year medical students before beginning classes and
again eight months later. Academic performance before medical school was found to
predict how individuals performed in medical school. Before and throughout medical
school, academic performance was also found to be negatively related to the stress
levels that were reported (Stewart et al., 1999).
Streuthers, Perry, and Menec (2000) examined the relationship between stress
and course grade in 203 college students who were enrolled in a variety of different
faculties. Groups of around 30 were administered questionnaires containing stress
items, Student Coping Scale, motivation items, and a grades consent form. It was
found that high levels of academic stress were related with lower course grades
obtained by individuals (Streuthers et al., 2000). However, it was also found that
students who utilized problem focused coping were likely to perform better and be
motivated when compared to students who engaged in emotion focused coping. There
is then a clear association between academic performance and stress in students.
To examine whether or not students who are highly resourceful are more
effective at defending themselves from academic stress and its negative effects,
Akgun and Ciarrochi (2003) gave 141 first year undergraduate students measures of
learned resourcefulness and academic stress. Through university records, they also
obtained first year grade point averages (Akgun & Ciarrochi, 2003). It was found that
academic stress that was high adversely impacted grades of students who had low
resourceful but had no impact on students who were found to be highly resourceful. It
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is suggested then that learned resourcefulness can modify the negative impact of stress
resourcefulness (Akgun & Ciarrochi, 2003). Although there is an association between
stress and academic performance in students, it would appear as though that this
relationship can be modified with resourcefulness. Academic stress appears to
adversely impact a student’s academic performance, but this relationship can be
modified.
Stress and Year of Study
College is generally a transitional period of time, where students have
numerous new obstacles that they must cope with, including being away from home
for the first time and maintaining a high level of academic achievement (Ross et al.,
1999). However, levels of stress and what is identified as a primary and high stressor
does not necessarily stay stagnant throughout a student’s entire college career
however. Dahlin et al. (2005) gave 342 students the Major Depression Inventory and
the Higher Education Stress Inventory to examine the exposure to various stressors
and the frequency of depression amongst medical students who are at different levels
of their education. It was found that students who were in Year 1 indicated that lack of
feedback and workloads were high stressors. In comparison, Year 3 students reported
that pedagogical shortcomings as a high stressor (Dahlin et al., 2005). Lastly, Year 6
students reported a climate that was non-supportive as a high stressor (Dahlin et al.,
2005).
Deary et al. (2003) carried out a longitudinal study to examine the
determinants and relationship among burnout, stress, and attrition in nursing students.
Students were given questionnaires to complete upon beginning their
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