International cooperation and climate negotiations: To Kyoto and beyond
Chronology of the Negotiations and Agreements
-1988: United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution urging the ‘protection of global climate for present and future generations’
IPCC established by UNEP
-1990: 2nd World Climate Conference launches negotiations on convention on climate change
-1992: UNFCCC opened for signature at Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, entered into force in 1994
-1997: Kyoto Protocol take aim at reducing greenhouse gas emissions of the members of developed countries
-2009: Developed and developing countries promise to reduce emissions by 2020 under the 'Copenhagen Accord'
Take aim at limiting global temperature rise to below 2°C
-2010: 'Cancun Agreement' which made Copenhagen Accord formal
The countries made an agreement on developing new rules for reporting to get more transparent environment especially for developing countries’ emissions.
-2011: Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (ADP) which emerged to negotiate by 2015 a new protocol, legal instrument or outcome with legal force, applicable to all Parties to take effect from 2020
-The Countries made an agreement on establishing a second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol (2013–2020)
-2012: Thirty-seven countries pledge to get emissions targets under the Kyoto Protocol second commitment period (Doha)
-2013: Countries are of the same opinion on announcing intended nationally determined contributions for the post-2020 period well in advance of the Paris COP
Almost all Parties submit intended post-2020 emission reduction targets
-IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
It is a group of scientific studies established in 1988 by two separate organizations of the United Nations: UN Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization. It was established for providing reliable, up-to-date information about climate change that is made by people’s activities. (http://climatechange.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=F2DB1FBE-1, 2013)
Rajendra Pachauri, an Indian, economist and engineer, has presided over the IPCC since 2002. He works with a small team of 10 people. The team helps in the coordination of working groups.
What are they doing exactly?
IPCC; reviews and evaluates published publications on climate science, emphasizes the most important points and shares them with anyone who wants to read their findings through evaluation reports. Those evaluation reports are published once every five or six years.
1990 is the year that the first report was published and the supplemental report was published in 1992. The second one is in 1995 and others in 2001 and 2007. In 2013, the fifth evaluation report was published. The AR5, the abbreviation of "the fifth assessment report" comes from here.
-1992: UNFCCC opened for signature at Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, entered into force in 1994
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was accepted in 1992 to lay the basis for a global response to climate change. The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994. The 194th Party has reached a nearly universal agreement. The ultimate goal of the contract is to stop the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human-induced effects on the climate system. The UNFCCC defines general principles, principles and obligations as a framework contract. (http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf, 1992). The Convention says that ‘’the climate system is a common entity whose integrity can be influenced by emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, primarily from industry and other sectors.’’ (Kaua)
Purpose and Principles
Article 2 defines the ultimate aim of the convention as "achieving to keep the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that prevents dangerous human-induced effects on the climate system, according to the relevant provisions of the convention". (http://unfccc.int/2860.php) This aim was qualified with the provision that "such a level should be achieved within a time that ecosystems will naturally adapt to climate change, will not threaten food production, and will allow economic development to continue in a sustainable manner." (http://unfccc.int/2860.php)
The general principles of the convention are contained in the Introduction and Article 3. The principles listed in Article 3 are:
– Equality principle
-The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities
-Precautionary principle
-The right and obligation to support sustainable development
In addition to the above, the convention includes principles such as "common concern of mankind", "free trade" and "cost-effectiveness" in the introduction and other articles.
Contractual Obligations
The convention defines the parties' obligations to comply with the effects of mitigation and climate change. In addition to the commitment that are valid for all parties, the convention explains different kinds of commitments for developed and developing country parties.
They can be classified as follows:
1) Obligations applicable to all Parties
2) The obligations of Annex I Parties
3) The obligations of the Parties to Annex II (http://unfccc.int/2860.php)
Under the Convention, all Parties are obliged to collect and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practice. The convention forces parties to improvenational emissions inventories, to prepare and implement national programs that include measures to facilitate climate change mitigation and adaptation, and to report to the conference of parties on implementation information.
The convention arranges hard reduction obligations for the developed country parties listed in Annex-I. Annex I parties are forced to improve policies and measures to limit their emissions. The Convention also set a non-binding objective for these Parties to bring their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000.
Developed country parties included in Annex II are forced to help developing countries in achieving their contractual commitments and in giving financial support for adaptation and working for transfer technology to these countries.
Turkey
Turkey, as an OECD member, was included in Annex I and Annex II lists of the Convention together with the developed countries when it was adopted in 1992. Decision 26 / CP.7, taken at the 7th Conference of the Parties (COP7) in Marrakech in 2001, recognized the different position of Turkey from the other Annex I Parties and was removed from the list of Annex II of the UNFCCC. Turkey participated as the 189th Party on 24 May 2004 by the UNFCCC.
1997: Kyoto Protocol take aim at reducing greenhouse gas emissions of the members of developed countries
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that sets various targets for industrialized countries to cut emissions of greenhouse gas emissions. The gases that create greenhouse effect are, in part, shown among the causes of global warming, that is, global warming, which is life threatening on earth.
The protocol established in 1997 is based on the principles set out in a framework agreement signed in 1992.
What does the Kyoto Protocol mean?
The protocol will become legally binding since February 16, 2005. However, the enforcement can only be possible if the following two conditions are fully satisfied:
* Signed by at least 55 countries.
* Signed by the countries that the agreement referred to as "Annex 1" countries, which are responsible for at least 55 percent of the world's emissions, with specific targets to reduce their emissions.
These are the wealthy countries of the world, created by OECD members and countries within the Soviet Union.
The first target was reached in 2002. But after the US and Australia's decision about not to join the protocol, the second condition became to depend on Russia's attitude.
Russia finally signed the protocol on 18 November 2004; a-so the Kyoto Protocol would have come into force on February 16, 2005.
The objectives of the protocol to reduce emissions will become binding for the signatory Annex I countries. Four of the 38 Annex 1 countries have not signed the protocol: USA, Australia, Croatia and Monaco.
Why did Russia decide not to support the protocol?
The factor that determines the Russian decision seems to be political benefit rather than economic cost. When it signs the protocol, it is said that EU support behind Russia will increase to join the World Trade Organization.
On the other hand, there are also concerns that Kyoto will adversely affect Russia's economic growth.
Industrialized countries have reduced their total emissions by 3 per cent from 1990 to 2000. But this decline stems mainly from the collapse of the economies of the former Soviet countries. Moreover, this decline also masked an 8 percent increase in wealthy countries.
The United Nations (UN) estimates that the rate of emissions in 2010 will be 10 per cent higher than in 1990, while industrialized countries say it deviates far more than the target for 2010. Only four EU countries are close to achieving their goals.
Is Kyoto in a good shape?
Prior to Russia's support, Kyoto was thought to be barely standing. But Moscow's support has given the protocol a new appearance.
The agreement stipulates that countries that are responsible for at least 55 per cent of the greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 are required to be binding in international law.
The deal was seriously shaken by the 2001 withdrawal of the US, which alone was responsible for about four quarters of all the emissions in the world. Adding to this the ambiguous attitude of Russia, many people fell into despair. However, after the last decision of Russia, 55 percent of the surplus seems possible.
Why did the US withdraw?
US President George W. Bush withdrew from the deal in 2001, saying that implementing the protocol would severely damage the US economy.
The Bush administration regarded Kyoto as a "grave" deal, arguing that it would not force any developing countries to lower their emission rates. (Borger, 2001)
Bush says it supports reducing emissions by using voluntary actions and new energy technologies.
BACKGROUND
The likelihood that human beings are responsible for the increase in the temperature of the earth seen for 200 years is an exact response of the present science. People are thinking that the climate warming will be continuing after that.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change produced a lot of estimates of what will happen in the future global average temperature increase. The projections of the IPCC are "baseline" projections, i.e. they assume that no effort is made in the future to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projections include the time series between beginning of the 21st and the end of the 21st century. The probability of the range for temperature will increase between 1 and 6° C in this century.
TARGETS OF KYOTO
-The aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to ensure that the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is balanced at levels that do not cause dangers. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates a temperature increase of between 1.4 ° C and 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2010. According to estimates, if successfully implemented, the Kyoto Protocol could reduce this increase by 0.02 to 0.28C. Advocates of the Kyoto Protocol argue that this protocol is the first step towards achieving the goal and that the objectives will be changed until they reach the goal.
– Industrialized countries are committed to reduce emissions in 1990 by 5 percent between 2008 and 2012.
-Every signatory country promises to keep its original target. European Union (EU) countries are expected to reduce their current emission rates by 8 percent and Japan by 5 percent.
-Some countries with low emission rates are allowed to raise these rates.
Details of the agreement
According to the United Nations Environment Program press release:
"The Kyoto Protocol is an agreement that developed countries will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% compared to 1990 (if the protocol does not apply, this would correspond to a 29% reduction if the 2010 emissions estimates are taken into account). The aim is to reduce the five year average emission values of six greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, HFCs and PFCs – 2008-2012. National targets vary by 8% for the EU and some other countries, 7% for the US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia and 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland” (http://www.unric.org/de/pressemitteilungen/5045)
The agreement was adopted as an annex to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted at the World Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. All members of the UNFCCC can sign the Kyoto Protocol, not the non-members.
Many elements of the Kyoto Protocol apply to the developed countries mentioned in Annex 1 of the UNFCCC.
Common but differentiated responsibilities
The UNFCCC defines "common but differentiated" responsibilities. Partner Countries:
1. Historical and current global greenhouse gas emissions have been realized by developed countries
2. Developing countries are still low gas emissions per capita
3. Emerging countries will increase their global emissions according to their social and developmental needs
In other words, China, India and other developing countries are exempt from the agreement because they are not the main responsibility of the emissions that cause climate change at the moment. Critics of the Kyoto Protocol argue that developing countries, and especially countries like China and India, will have the greatest greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, they say that due to protocol limitations, emerging countries will emerge from developed countries and therefore net greenhouse gas emissions will not change.
Emission trading
According to the Kyoto Protocol, countries are obliged to reduce their emissions from 2008 to 2012 by 5.2%. However, in practice many countries have set limits on certain industrial establishments (such as the paper industry, power plants). This practice is in the EU and many countries are moving towards it. Accordingly, a company that understands that it will release more than the specified level will in some way have to find a Carbon Loan elsewhere. This has revealed the Carbon trade and stock market.
Clean Development Mechanism
The CDM projects described in Article 12 of the Protocol include Annex I and Annex I Parties. The mechanism allows for the implementation of an emission reduction project in developing countries (Annex-I External) of a Party (Annex-B Party) that has an emission limitation or mitigation obligation under the Protocol. CDM projects earn certified emission reduction units (CERs), each of which is equivalent to one tonne of CO2, and which can be joined and sold to the account in achieving the Annex I Party's Kyoto goal of investing. The CDM has two objectives:
1) To assist Annex I Parties (host countries) in achieving sustainable development; and
2) To help Annex I Parties fulfill their emission reduction obligations under the Kyoto Protocol. (http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php)
CDM Executive Board (CDM-EB):
The Clean Development Mechanism executive board ensures the implementation of the CDM under the Kyoto Protocol. This structure undertakes various tasks related to the day-to-day operation of the CDM, including the accreditation of executive units. It consists of a total of 10 members, one from each of the five United Nations regional groups, one from developing small island states, and two from Annex-1 and Annex-1 countries. Only the representatives of the countries which are parties to the Kyoto Protocol can serve on this board.
Joint Implementation
Joint Implementation (JI): Article 6 of the Protocol defines the Joint Implementation as a project-based mechanism implemented by Annex I Parties. Mechanism The Annex I Parties with the emission limitation or mitigation obligation under the Protocol are allowed to implement emission reduction (or remediation) projects in other Annex I Parties. JI projects result in the creation of emission reduction units that the investor can participate in to reach the emission target. JI projects grant emission reduction units, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2. Although JI projects can be implemented between any two Annex I Parties, it is observed in practice that this mechanism is associated with projects in Eastern European countries and in Russia, in other words, countries considered as transition economies.
Joint Implementation Advisory Committee (JISC):
The Joint Implementation Advisory Committee (JISC) supervises the verification of the emission reduction units obtained from the Joint Implementation (JI) projects in accordance with the JISC verification procedure, in addition to the other functions of the CMP and the authorization of the CMP. The committee consists of a total of 10 members, three from the transition countries, three from the Annex-1 countries and one from the small and developing island states.
Procedural rules of JISC;
The procedural rules for JISC were first established at the first meeting of the CMP and the draft rules were detailed at the first meeting of the JISC on the request of the CMB. The draft procedural rules of JISC have been implemented as provisionally as adopted at the second meeting of the CMP.
The role of JISC:
-Regularly reviewing the accreditation of accredited independent bodies and the standards and procedures for accreditation;
-Regularly monitoring and reviewing the guidelines and criteria for evaluating the reference value and renewing it if necessary;
-Development of project design documents for JI projects;
-The identification and verification of the identification, if deemed necessary;
-The development of any additional procedural rules that may be required; and reporting to CMP about activities.
Sanctions
If the UNFCCC Implementation Unit decides that an Annex I country does not comply with the emission targets, then it is necessary to reduce the emission by 30% more with that emission target difference. At the same time, the country's emissions trading covers 50 percent of the program.
Kyoto Protocol and Turkey
Turkey officially announces that it will sign the Protocol on May 30, 2008, which was a party to the UNFCCC in 2004 but did not sign the Kyoto Protocol for a long time. Turkey, which was initially included in both Annex 1 and Annex 2, as in all OECD countries, was removed from Annex 2 as a transit country in 2001 in Morocco on its application.
Turkey's greenhouse gas emission per person is 5.9 tons. This ratio is 1/3 of the OECD average and 1/2 of the European Union average. Turkey's contribution to global warming is 0.04% in the last 150 years. In 1990, 187 million tons of greenhouse gases were released, reaching 370 million tons in 2009. Today, Turkey, which has 20% of its energy from renewable energy, aims to increase this rate to 30% in 2023.
Turkey has adopted the National Climate Change Strategy Document covering 2010-2020. This document based action plan was completed in 2011.
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