Chapter 3
Chapter 3
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY
“It is of the utmost importance that we recognize and nurture
all of the varied human intelligences, and all of the
combinations of intelligences.”(Howard Gardner, 1993:15)
Exploring the theory of the Multiple Intelligences is like stepping on mined ground. Nevertheless, this research will give it a try, because in my opinion, this fascinating concept should be known and taken into consideration if we want our children to better understand the world, to know who they are and what they can do. As pointed out in the introduction, I have always thought about the reasons why my students react in different ways to the activities I perform in the class, and even why different groups of students react differently to the same activity. Why do some pupils really enjoy working in groups whilst others are much more productive when working alone? Why do some learners draw pictures in their specially designed vocabulary books while others seem to need to just hear a word to be able to use it themselves? What is the reason for which I was successful with an activity applied on some students while performing the same activity with another group of students I was not? … The answer to all these questions is definitely to be found in Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences.
3.1. The Concept of Intelligence
Intelligence is an issue that has always generated a great deal of heated debate. There are as many as 150 definitions of intelligence in the field of Psychology with supporters maintaining its traditional meaning and potency and opponents challenging the standard connotations and embracing some more comprehensive, more complex, broader and even more pragmatic perspectives.
The first indirect records of the term “intelligence” were registered during the Antiquity, when the concept of intelligence was rather perceived and referred to as an ideal; thus, the ancient Greeks valued “physical ability, rational judgment and virtuous behaviour” (Gardner, 1999: 1), while the Romans tended to rank ‘courage’ as the supreme ideal. By way of contrast, the Chinese treasured different ideals such as skills in music, drawing and archery.
It is generally known that the adjective “intelligent” has always had a strong impact on people over the centuries, and those who are referred to as “intelligent”, are expected to be able to succeed not only in academic life but also in tasks and situations they confront with throughout their existence. Therefore, along the centuries, many psychologists have attempted to define, measure and express human intellectual capabilities. Generally speaking, intelligence is defined as “the general mental ability involved in calculating, reasoning, perceiving relationships and analogies, learning quickly, storing and retrieving information, using language fluently, classifying, generalizing, and adjusting to new situations.” (Columbia Encyclopaedia, sixth edition, 2006). More specifically, two major approaches to perceiving intelligence can be traced: the traditional theories based on the IQ perspective and the theories based on Multiple perspectives.
Intelligence theories based on the IQ perspective used to define the term as a “static, single construct” (Snider 2001: 5), that is a unitary and constant attribute measuring language and logic through the well known IQ (Intelligence Quotient) test, developed by the famous French psychologist Alfred Binet in 1906. The IQ test was later modified (1920-1930) so as to suit the American society, being further referred to as the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Gardner, 1999:12). Furthermore, other tests such as SAT (Scholastic Aptitude/Assessment Tests) were developed but they were based on the same singularity perspective that accepted intelligence as a sole capacity which was measured by the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests. Even though all these tests only assessed a narrow range of logical and linguistic capacities, they soon became the standard intelligence instruments of evaluation used not only in the U.S.A., but all over the world; what is more, the general public seems to have adopted this limited view according to which intelligence is what the above mentioned intelligence tests measured. (Kail and Pellegrina, 1985: 158). A good example to illustrate the above mentioned statement would be that of Marilyn Vos Savant, the individual with the world's highest recorded score on the IQ test (as registered by the Guinness Book of World Records). Famous columnist, author, lecturer and playwright, Marilyn Vos Savant is often referred to as the most intelligent person in the world and since 1986 she has been writing a weekly syndicated column called "Ask Marilyn" for many newspapers and magazines in the United States in which she solves puzzles and answers questions from readers on a variety of subjects (Vos Savant 1998). Many people read her column and worship the logical and precise answers she offers to difficult questions. Whatever intelligence means, Vos Savant was regarded for having lots of it. Nonetheless, in 1990, after concluding that IQ tests are not reliable enough to designate a single world record holder, the Guinness retired the category “Highest IQ”.
Despite the fact that enormous changes in the conceptualization of intellect had occurred in recent years in the fields of Physics, Biology, Neuroscience, Cognitive Science, the perception of intelligence had remained slightly unchanged for the last 100 years (Gardner, 2004: 212) .
It was only in 1983 that the famous American psychologist quoted above, Howard Gardener, successfully managed to challenge this commonly held belief and revolutionize the traditional theories of Intelligence based on the IQ perspective, making the transition to more daring intelligence theories based on multiple perspectives, creating thus, new conditions for the comprehension of human intelligence and bringing up powerful, valuable insights into the process of education.
3.2. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
In response to the drawbacks shortly portrayed in the first part of this chapter (3.1. The Concept of Intelligence), Howard Garner proposed a much broader and accurate view of the term, namely a “pluralistic view of the mind” (Gardner, 2006: 5), that “enhanced the appraisal of all human competencies” (Campbell, 1991: 12)”, accounting for the different ways people think and act. All these are masterfully orchestrated and brought to life in the Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
Howard Gardner first introduced his innovative theory in 1983 in his first notable book “Frames of Mind”. It is in this book that Gardner stated, "I believe that human cognitive competence is better described in terms of a set of abilities, talents, or mental skills, which I call intelligences" (1983: 6), investigating the possibility of several specialized intelligences within the human mind. More specifically, Gardner suggests that each individual has different aptitudes and abilities in several subjects, that each person possesses several types of intelligences that are combined differently:
“In its strong form, multiple intelligences theory posits a small set of human intellectual potentials, perhaps as few as seven in number, of which all individuals are capable by virtue of their membership in the human species.” (Gardner, 1983: 278).
Initially, Gardener suggested the existence of at least seven basic types of intelligences (verbal-linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal , intrapersonal) and he later added two more (naturalist and existentialist) in one of his latest books, published in 1999: “Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st century”.
There are many critics who questioned the theory of multiple intelligences, advocating that what Gardner describes as “intelligences” are merely a set of aptitudes, talents or inner abilities and therefore, they cannot be referred to as “intelligences”, the term being inappropriately used. It has to be pointed out that Gardner was very conscious of his use of the word “intelligence” to describe each category of aptitudes or native talents and he chose the term deliberately; his purpose was to value all “gamut of human possibilities” not only the traditionally recognized intelligences (verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical) that would incriminate and discourage a person categorized traditionally as not intelligent, to secure himself that the non-traditional intelligences that have been left out for centuries are appreciated at their deserved value, suggesting thus, that we should place equal attention to other types of intelligences that give the world musicians, architects, naturalists, artists, designers, dancers and artisans. This is what Gardener has stated in an interview:
“I’m deliberately being somewhat provocative. If I’d said that there’s seven kinds of competencies, people would yawn and say “yeah, yeah”. But by calling them “intelligences,” I’m saying that we’ve tended to put on a pedestal one variety called intelligence, and there’s actually a plurality of them, and some are things we’ve never thought about as being “intelligence” at all.” (Weinreich-Haste, 1985: 48)
There are several key points that Gardner added to MI theory:
1. The set of intelligences existing within each individual, are combined in different manners, so each person has a different intelligence profile, which is a combination of all the intelligences. In other words, the theory of multiple intelligences is a theory of cognitive functioning, claiming that each individual has capacities in all nine intelligences, which intermingle and function together in ways that are unique to each person. More exactly, each of us are “highly developed in some intelligences, modestly developed in others and relatively underdeveloped in the rest” (Armstrong, 2000: 9). For instance, the preparation of a simple, ordinary meal may involve a quite impressive array of intelligences/abilities: verbal-linguistic (one must be able to read the recipe), logical-mathematical (measure, calculate different quantities of the necessary ingredients), interpersonal (develop a menu that would satisfy all members of the family), intrapersonal (consider its own appetite as well) (Armstrong, 2000: 9). There are also individuals that possess extremely high levels of functioning in one type of intelligences, while the others types function at a low level; the savants, prodigies or other exceptional individuals (such as Einstein, Newton, Pythagoras that are well-known for their logical-mathematical intelligence, Shakespeare, Plato and Aristotle for the verbal-linguistic, Leonardo da Vinci, Picasso for the visual-spatial, Beethoven, Mozart for the musical, Lincoln for the interpersonal, Aristotle for intrapersonal, Dostoyevsky for the existentialist) and those who appear to lack all or the most rudimentary aspects of the intelligences (the developmentally disabled or those who had suffered serious injuries in accidents). As a matter of fact, it is while studying the people in the latter category that laid the foundations of his theory (The Project Zero).
2. Most people can develop each type of intelligence to an adequate level of competency if given the appropriate encouragement, enrichment and instruction. Gardner (1993:34) believes that the intelligence profile can be changed and improved through education. He further stated that each person’s potentials can be activated and this activation depends on several aspects such as “the values of a particular culture, the opportunities available in that culture, and the personal decisions made by individuals and/or their families, schoolteachers, and others.”
3. There are many ways to be intelligent within each category. For instance, a person could be considered highly linguistic since he/she is able to speak perfect English or tell terrific stories thanks to a rich oral vocabulary but the same person might have huge difficulties when it comes to writing in English.
A detailed description of each type of intelligence is provided in the lines below. The descriptions are a combination of several sources: (Christison,1996; Christison and Kennedy, 1999; Chapman and Freeman, 1996; Gardner,1999; Lazear, 1993, Armstrong, 2000; Snider, 2001; Stefanakis, 2002).
3.2.1. The Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence (VLI).
This type of intelligence is commonly described as the ability to use language effectively and to communicate both in speaking and writing. It also means being able to use language for convincing the others, understanding patterns of a language (in terms of grammar use or appropriateness of language). The people possessing this type of intelligence, also referred to as “word smart”, are competent users of language, have a complex vocabulary and they easily remember and render information, stories, jokes, speeches or any other verbal act. They also like using language for any kind of written act. (letters, articles, novels, poetry, etc). Furthermore, as Lazear (1993:15) adds: “this intelligence is involved in any use of metaphors, similes and analogies, and, of course, in learning proper grammar and syntax in speaking and writing”.
The Verbal MI people are characterized by the following verbs: read, write, speak, articulate, lecture, present, tell, ask, explain, inform, convey, report, address, confer, recount, request, announce, narrate, debate, discuss, converse, recite, quote, describe, clarify and the activities these people will definitely enjoy are:
@ Book reporting
@ Telling jokes
@ Writing words
@ Reading
@ Journal writing
@ Letter writing
@ Creative writing
@ Speaking
@ Storytelling
@ Discussing
@ Debating
@ Persuading
People with a preference for this type of intelligence often choose careers as language teachers, linguists, editors, translators, interpreters, reporters, radio or television announcers, librarians, poets, comedians, orators, lawyers or politicians. Some of the famous people that honoured this category are: William Shakespeare, Edgar Allen Poe, Earnest Hemmingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Emily Dickinson, Agatha Christie, T.S. Eliot, Rudyard Kipling.
This intelligence is traditionally tested in many standardized international and national tests such as CAE (Cambridge Advanced English),TOEFL (Testing English as a Foreign Language), GRE (Graduate Record Examination) as well as the psychological tests mentioned in the first part of the chapter, namely the IQ or the Standard –Binet tests.
3.2.2. The Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence (MRI) involves sensitivity to musical patterns, sounds, tones, rhythms, that is the ability to recognize or use those mentioned above.
People possessing this type of intelligence are considered to be “music smart”, they sing, whistle, play instruments, recognize, compose and remember songs, and they react to environmental sounds, such as bells or singing birds.
There have been identified two types of musical intelligences: the figural one (specific to those who are very intuitive about the nature of music and its creation) and the formal one (specific to those that are analytic and technical about music and its creation). Anyone can have either both or one of these forms.
People that are musically intelligent are able to: listen, hear, infer, audit, note, pattern, sing, clap, chant, model, perceive, repeat, replicate, reproduce, copy, echo, imitate, impersonate, mimic, compose, harmonize, dub, rap, orchestrate, resonate, express all kinds of musical forms and they like performing the following types of activities:
♫ Listening to and singing different kinds of music (classical, Jazz, rock, country,
etc.)
♫ Going to concerts with friends and family
♫ Humming
♫ Making a CD of their favourite songs
♫ Creating chants
♫ Creating concept songs or environmental sounds
♫ Illustrating speech or written acts with sounds
♫ Turning some of the learning into a song or Rhythmic chant
♫ Listening to or creating instrumental sounds
♫ Writing and analyzing lyrics of favourite melodies
♫ Join a chorus group in a choir
♫ Analysing musical concepts or performance
♫ Reproduce sounds and rhythms
They may work as musicians, music therapists, singers, composers, conductors, music teachers, piano tuners, studio engineers or as dick jockeys, musical theatre actors or actresses, instrument managers.
Among the impressive array of renowned musicians, here is a humble selection of those who skilfully helped magically shape the field of Music: Ludwig van Beethoven, Mozart, Ray Charles, Antonio Stradivari, Queen, The Beatles.
3.2.3. The Logical/Mathematical Intelligence (LMI). points to the capacity to think in a logical, systematic manner, to use numbers effectively and reason well. This intelligence is involved in recognizing abstract patterns, making predictions, sequencing, problem solving and scientific thinking and investigation. The people illustrating this type of intelligence can detect patterns in thought and logic in nature, they are familiar with scientific principles and methods and they love:
% Analyzing
% Categorizing
% Experimenting
% Questioning
% Figuring out logical puzzles
% Calculating
% Outlining
% Problem solving
% Reasoning
% Sequencing
% Watching television documentaries or reading about science, famous scientist
and their inventions
% Reading detective stories and sequencing events into story lines
Apart from the verbs mentioned in correlation with the activities above, other verbs that best describe the ”number smart” or the ”logic smart” people are : solve, resolve, question, hypothesize, theorize, scrutinize, investigate, experiment, analyze, deduce, prove, verify, decipher, determine, predict, estimate, measure, quantify, simplify. In addition, people within this category are attracted to: logic games, numbers, patterns, formulas, time lines, synthesis, rational and scientific thinking, Venn Diagrams, statistics and they are likely to perform professions such as : accountants, actuaries, auditors, bankers, bookkeepers, businessmen/women, computer analysts, computer programmers, doctors, economists, legal assistants, mathematicians, purchasing agents, science researchers, science teachers, statisticians, technicians.
Einstein, Pythagoras, Newton, Pascal, Archimedes, Euclid, Copernicus, Plato, Galileo, Aristotle are just a few of the famous worlds’ logical mathematical personalities.
As well as the verbal linguistic, this intelligence is mainly used in standard tests; as Gardner (1999:42) ironically remarked:
“Having a blend of linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence is no doubt a blessing
for students and for anyone else who must take tests regularly. Indeed, the fact that most
psychologists and most other academics exhibit a reasonable amalgam of linguistic and
logical intelligence made it almost inevitable that those faculties would dominate tests of
intelligence. ”
3.2.4. Strength in Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence (BKI)
can be observed in those who are “body smart” that is, those people who able to control themselves so as to use their whole bodies to interpret a skill, to express thoughts, ideas and emotions through movements and gestures (acting, dancing, sports, using body language) or who manipulate objects skilfully (sculpting clay or hands-on learning).
According to Christison (1996:11), people with a preference for this kind of intelligence generally have skills such as “coordination, flexibility, speed and balance” and they usually engage in:
Dancing
Running
Jumping
Acting
Touching
Gesturing
Inventing
Visiting (field trips)
Experimenting, learning cooking, gardening, woodworking or car/computer mechanics
Miming, puppetry, role play impersonations and drama
Charades
Collections
Demonstrations
Movement , sports , gymnastics and other physical games
Things to build
Tactile (touchable) experiences
Martial Arts
Consequently, the kinaesthetic intelligence could be defined by the following verbs: build, construct, erect, assemble, make, manufacture, structure, craft, imitate, play, perform, walk, run, jump, dance, collect, gather, compile, fashion, shape, duplicate, dissect, exercise, move, transport.
Possible career choices within this category are: inventors, jewellers, mechanics, P.E. teachers, physical therapists, recreational directors, actors/actresses, athletes, carpenters, craftsmen/craftswomen, choreographers, dancers, farmers, forest rangers. Some of those who embraced and had great achievements in such professions are: Nadia Comaneci, Gabriela Sabo, Michael Jordan, Thomas Edison, Anthony Hopkins, Anna Pavlova.
3.2.5. Possessing the ability to perceive and interpret visual stimuli, having a strong visual memory and the capacity to form pictures in one’s mind are characteristics of those with a strong Spatial/Visual Intelligence (SVI). In other words, Christison (1996:11), spatial/visual intelligence involves “the sensitivity to form, space, colour, line and shape”. It involves visualising things either mentally or graphically. For instance, being capable to solve problems related to the notion of space and skilfully using a map to locate a place in a city or a town or drawing a floor plan are manifestations of spatial/visual intelligence.
The visual MI verbs are: observe, symbolize, draw, sketch, draft, illustrate, paint, colour, contour, outline, rearrange, design, redesign, invent, create, conceive, originate, innovate, imagine, picture, envision, visualize, pretend. As far as the activities that would tempt any “picture smart” individual are concerned, a selection is provided in the following lines:
۞ Painting
۞ Sculpting
۞ Moulding Clay
۞ Labelling
۞ Mapping
۞ Cutting out favourite pictures from magazines and making a collage
۞ Solving puzzles
The visual-spatial lovers will also greatly appreciate:
۞ Drawings, posters, collages, designs, brochures
۞ Photography
۞ Flow Charts, patterns
۞ Idea Sketching
۞ Visualization
Possible Careers that they could find appealing are: architects, sculptors, painters, photographers, fine artists, interior, graphic or fashion designers, advertising agents, cartographers (map makers), drafters, engineers, urban planners, pilots, surveyors.
Among the numerous people with high spatial Intelligence one can find: Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Pablo Picasso, Vincent Van Gogh Frank Lloyd Wright (architect), Ansel Adams (photographer) Steven Spielberg (film director), Amelia Earhart (aviation pioneer), Auguste Rodin (sculptor) and Robert Fulton (inventor).
3.2.6. The Interpersonal Intelligence
(“smart people”) is the ability to interact with people effectively, that is to be empathetic, feeling and thinking readily. More specifically, people with a high preference for the interpersonal intelligence always have a talent for understanding and caring about other people – their feelings, thoughts, motivations, moods, needs and inner struggles. Furthermore, they are able to wisely use these skills to help and comfort people or, on the contrary, to persuade and manipulate them.
Interpersonally intelligent will always enjoy:
☺ Face-to-face communication
☺ Understanding other's feelings
☺ Giving feedback to the teacher or to classmates
☺ Receiving feedback
☺ Cooperative learning strategies
☺ Group projects
☺ Teaching someone else something new
☺ Learning from someone outside of school
☺ Other points of view
☺ Creating group rules
☺ Acting in a play or simulation
☺ Conducting an interview
☺ Creating "phone buddies" for homework
☺ Sensing others’ motives
☺ Creating group rules
The verbs that best illustrate the interpersonal MI are: share, lead, guide, direct, help, mediate, manage, conduct, collaborate, cooperate, interview, influence, persuade, campaign, convince, compromise, role-play, improvise, ad-lib, referee, reconcile and professions such as: religious leaders, teachers, counsellors, sociologists, therapists, psychologists,