The English term translation , was first attested in around 1340 , derives either
from Old French translation or more directly from the Latin translatio (‘transporting’),
itself coming from the participle of the verb transferre (‘to carry over’).
Translation has several meanings:
(1) the general subject field or phenomenon;
(2) the product – that is, the text that has been translated ;
(3) the process of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating.
The process of translation between two different written languages involves
the changing of an original written text (the source text or ST ) in the original
verbal language (the source language or SL ) into a written text (the target text
or TT ) in a different verbal language (the target language or TL ).
Thus, when translating a product manual from Chinese into English, the ST is
Chinese and the TT is English. This type corresponds to ‘interlingual translation’
and is one of the three categories of translation described by the Russo-American
structuralist Roman Jakobson (1896–1982) in his seminal paper ‘On linguistic
aspects of translation’.
Jakobson’s categories are as follows:
(1) intralingual translation, or ‘rewording’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of other signs of the same language’
(2) interlingual translation, or ‘translation proper’ – ‘an interpretation of
verbal signs by means of some other language’
(3) intersemiotic translation, or ‘transmutation’ – ‘an interpretation of verbal
signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems’. (Jakobson 1959/2004: 139)
These definitions draw on semiotics , the general science of communication
through signs and sign systems, of which language is but one (Cobley 2001,
Malmkjær 2011). Its use is significant here because translation is not always
limited to verbal languages. Intersemiotic translation , for example, occurs
when a written text is translated into a different mode, such as music, film or
painting. Examples would be Jeff Wayne’s famous 1978 musical version of
H. G. Wells’s science-fiction novel The War of the Worlds (1898), which was
then adapted for the stage in 2006, or Gurinder Chadha’s 2004 Bollywood Bride
and Prejudice adaptation of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice . Intralingual
translation would occur when we produce a summary or otherwise rewrite a
text in the same language, say a children’s version of an encyclopedia. It also
occurs when we rephrase an expression in the same language. In the following
example, revenue nearly tripled is a kind of intralingual translation of the first part
of the sentence, a fact that is highlighted by the trigger expression in other words .
In the decade before 1989 revenue averaged around [NZ]$1 billion a year
while in the decade after it averaged nearly [NZ]$3 billion a year – in other
words, revenue nearly tripled.
It is interlingual translation , between two different verbal sign systems, that
has been the traditional focus of translation studies. However, as we shall see as
the book progresses, notably in Chapters 8 to 10 , the very notion of ‘translation
proper’ and of the stability of source and target has been challenged. The question
of what we mean by ‘translation’, and how it differs from ‘adaptation’, ‘version’,
‘transcreation’ (the creative adaptation of video games and advertising in particular,
see section 11.1.8), ‘localization’ (the linguistic and cultural adaptation of a
text for a new locale, see section 11.2) and so on, is a very real one. Sandra
Halverson (1999) claims that translation can be better considered as a prototype
classification, that is, that there are basic core features that we associate with a
prototypical translation, and other translational forms which lie on the periphery.
Much of translation theory has also been written from a western perspective
and initially derived from the study of Classical Greek and Latin and from Biblical
practice (see Chapter 2 ). By contrast, Maria Tymoczko (2005, 2006, 2007:
68–77) discusses the very different words and metaphors for ‘translation’ in
other cultures, indicative of a conceptual orientation where the goal of close
lexical fidelity to an original may not therefore be shared, certainly in the practice
of translation of sacred and literary texts. For instance, in India there is the Bengali
rupantar (= ‘change of form’) and the Hindi anuvad (= ‘speaking after’, ‘following’),
in the Arab world tarjama (= ‘biography’) and in China fan yi (= ‘turning over’).
Each of these construes the process of translation differently and anticipates that
the target text will show a substantial change of form compared to the source.
What is translation studies?
Throughout history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role in
interhuman communication, not least in providing access to important texts for
scholarship and religious purposes. As world trade has grown, so has the importance
of translation. By 2008, in the European Union alone the turnover of the
translation and interpreting industry was estimated at 5.7 billion euros. 5 Yet the
study of translation as an academic subject only really began in the second half of
the twentieth century. In the English-speaking world, this discipline is now generally
known as ‘translation studies’ , thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar
James S. Holmes (1924–1986). In his key defining paper delivered in 1972, but
not widely available until 1988, Holmes describes the then nascent discipline as
being concerned with ‘the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon
of translating and translations’ (Holmes 1988b/2004: 181). By 1995, the time of
the second, revised, edition of her Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach ,
Mary Snell-Hornby was able to talk in the preface of ‘the breathtaking development
of translation studies as an independent discipline’ and the ‘prolific international
discussion’ on the subject (Snell-Hornby 1995, preface). Mona Baker, in
her introduction to the first edition of The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation
(Baker and Malmkjær 1998: xiii), talked effusively of the richness of the ‘exciting
new discipline, perhaps the discipline of the 1990s’, bringing together scholars
from a wide variety of often more traditional areas. In 2008, the second edition of
the Encyclopedia shows how far this discipline has evolved. It comments on ‘new
concerns in the discipline, its growing multidisciplinarity, and its commitment to
break away from its exclusively Eurocentric origins, while holding on to the
achievements of the past decades’ (Baker and Saldanha 2009: xxii).
There are four very visible ways in which translation studies has become
more prominent. Unsurprisingly, these reflect a basic tension between the practical
side of professional translating and the often more abstract research activity
of the field. First, just as the demand for translation has soared, so has there been
a vast expansion in specialized translating and interpreting programmes
at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. These programmes, which attract
thousands of students, are mainly oriented towards training future professional
commercial translators and interpreters and serve as highly valued entry-level
qualifications for the professions. Take the example of the UK. The study of
modern languages at school and university has been in decline but the story of
postgraduate programmes in interpreting and translating, the first of which were
set up in the 1960s, is very different. At the time of the first edition of this book
(2001), there were at least twenty postgraduate translation programmes in the
UK and several designated ‘Centres for Translation Studies’. By 2010–11, the
keyword search ‘translation’ revealed over twenty institutions offering a combined
total of 143 MA programmes, even if translation was not necessarily central to
all. 6 The types of translation covered at each institution may also vary. These may
include MAs in applied translation studies, scientific and technical translation,
conference and bilateral interpreting, audiovisual translation, specialized British
Sign Language and audio description.
A smaller number of programmes focus on the practice of literary translation.
In Europe, literary translation is also supported by the RECIT network of centres
where literary translation is studied, practised and promoted. The first of these
was set up in Strälen, West Germany, in 1978.
Second, the past decades have also seen a proliferation of conferences,
books and journals on translation in many languages. Longer-standing international
translation studies journals such as Babel (the Netherlands) and Meta
(Canada), first published in 1955, were joined by TTR ( Traduction, terminologie,
rédaction , Canada) in 1988, Target (the Netherlands) in 1989, and The Translator
(UK) in 1995. There are numerous others too, including Across Languages and
Cultures (Hungary), Cadernos de Tradução (Brazil), Chinese Translators Journal
(China), Linguistica Antverpiensia – New Series (Belgium), Translation and
Literature (UK), Palimpsestes (France), Perspectives (Denmark), Translation and
Interpreting Studies (the Netherlands), Translation Quarterly (Hong Kong
Translation Society), Translation Studies (UK), Turjuman (Morocco) and the
Spanish Hermeneus, Livius and Sendebar .
Online accessibility is increasing the profile of certain publications: thus, most
of the contents of Meta and TTR are freely available online, issues of Babel, Target
and The Translator are viewable by subscription and we now see the appearance
of fully online journals such as The Journal of Specialised Translation and New
Voices (see www.routledge.com/cw/munday ). In addition, there is a whole host of
other journals devoted to single languages, modern languages, applied linguistics,
comparative literature and others where articles on translation are often published.
The new and backlists of European publishers such as Continuum, John Benjamins,
Multilingual Matters, Peter Lang, Rodopi, Routledge and St Jerome have series in
translation studies. There are also various professional publications dedicated to
the practice of translation. In the UK these include The Linguist of the Chartered
Institute of Linguists, The ITI Bulletin of the Institute of Translating and Interpreting
and In Other Words , the literary-oriented publication of the Translators Association.
Third, as the number of publications has increased so has the demand for
general and analytical instruments such as anthologies, databases, encyclopedias,
handbooks and introductory texts. Their number is ever-growing. Among
these are Translation Studies (Bassnett 1980/1991/2002), Contemporary
Translation Theories (Gentzler 1993, 2001), The Routledge Encyclopedia of
Translation Studies (Baker and Malmkjær 1998; Baker and Saldanha 2009),
Dictionary of Translation Studies (Shuttleworth and Cowie 1997), Introducing
Translation Studies (Munday 2001/2008), A Companion to Translation Studies
(Kuhiwczak and Littau 2007), The Routledge Companion to Translation Studies
(Munday 2009), Critical Concepts: Translation Studies (Baker 2009), Critical
Readings in Translation Studies (Baker 2010), Exploring Translation Theories
(Pym 2010), the Handbook of Translation Studies (Gambier and van Doorslaer
2010) and The Oxford Handbook of Translation Studies (Malmkjær and Windle
2011). The best-known searchable online bibliographies are Translation Studies
Bibliography (John Benjamins), Translation Studies Abstracts (St Jerome) and
the free-access BITRA (University of Alicante). 8
Fourth, international organizations have also prospered. The Fédération
Internationale des Traducteurs (International Federation of Translators, FIT) was
established in 1953 by the Société française des traducteurs and its president
Pierre-François Caillé. It brought together national associations of translators. In
more recent years, translation studies scholars have banded together nationally
and internationally in bodies such as the Canadian Association for Translation
Studies/Association canadienne de traductologie (CATS, founded in Ottawa in
1987), the European Society for Translation Studies (EST, Vienna, 1992), the
European Association for Studies in Screen Translation (ESIST, Cardiff, 1995),
the American Translation and Interpreting Studies Association (ATISA, Kent, OH,
2002) and the International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies
(IATIS, Korea, 2004). International conferences on a wide variety of themes are
held in an increasing number of countries. From being a relatively quiet backwater
in the early 1980s, translation studies has now become one of the most active
and dynamic new areas of research encompassing an exciting mix of approaches.
An early history of the discipline
Writings on the subject of translating go far back in recorded history. The practice
of translation was crucial for the early dissemination of key cultural and
religious texts and concepts. In the west, the different ways of translating were
discussed by, among others, Cicero and Horace (first century BCE ) and St Jerome
(fourth century CE ). As we shall see in Chapter 2 , their writings were to exert an
important influence up until the twentieth century. In St Jerome’s case, his
approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later
translations of the Scriptures. Indeed, in western Europe the translation of the
Bible was to be the battleground of conflicting ideologies for well over a thousand
years and especially during the Reformation in the sixteenth century. In
China, it was the translation of the Buddhist sutras that inaugurated a long discussion
on translation practice from the first century CE .
While the practice of translation is long established, the study of the field
developed into an academic discipline only in the latter part of the twentieth
century. Before that, translation had often been relegated to an element of
language learning. In fact, from the late eighteenth century to the 1960s and
beyond, language learning in secondary schools in many countries had come to
be dominated by what was known as grammar-translation (Cook 2010:
9–15). Applied to Classical Latin and Greek and then to modern foreign
languages, this centred on the rote study of the grammatical rules and structures
of the foreign language. These rules were both practised and tested by the translation
of a series of usually unconnected and artificially constructed sentences
exemplifying the structure(s) being studied. This is an approach that persists
even today in certain contexts. Typical of this is the following rather bizarre and
decontextualized collection of sentences to translate into Spanish, for the practice
of Spanish tense use. They appear in K. Mason’s Advanced Spanish Course ,
still to be found on some secondary school courses in the UK until the 1990s:
(1) The castle stood out against the cloudless sky.
(2) The peasants enjoyed their weekly visits to the market.
(3) She usually dusted the bedrooms after breakfast.
(4) Mrs Evans taught French at the local grammar school. (Mason 1969/1974: 92)
The gearing of translation to language teaching and learning may partly explain
why academia considered it to be of secondary status. Translation exercises were
regarded as a means of learning a new language or of reading a foreign language
text until one had the linguistic ability to read the original. Study of a work in translation
was generally frowned upon once the student had acquired the necessary
skills to read the original. Grammar-translation therefore fell into increasing disrepute,
particularly in many English-language countries, with the rise of alternative
forms of language teaching such as the direct method and the communicative
approach from the 1960s and 1970s (Cook 2010: 6–9, 22–26). The communicative
approach stressed students’ natural capacity to learn language and attempts
to replicate ‘authentic’ language-learning conditions in the classroom. It often privileged
spoken over written forms, at least initially, and generally avoided use of the
students’ mother tongue. This led to the abandoning of translation in language
learning. As far as teaching was concerned, translation then tended to become
restricted to higher-level and university language courses and professional translator
training. It is only relatively recently that there has been a move to restore
translation to language teaching (see Cook 2010: 125–53, for examples).
In 1960s USA, starting in Iowa and Princeton, literary translation was promoted
by the translation workshop concept. This was based on the reading and practical
criticism workshops of Cambridge critic I. A. Richards (1893–1979) from
the 1920s and on later creative writing workshops. The translation workshops
were intended as a platform for the introduction of new translations into the target
culture and for the discussion of the finer principles of the translation process and
of understanding a text. 9 Running parallel to this approach was that of comparative
literature , where literature is studied and compared transnationally and
transculturally, necessitating the reading of some works in translation.
Another area in which translation became the subject of research was
contrastive linguistics . This is the study of two languages in contrast in an
attempt to identify general and specific differences between them. It developed
into a systematic area of research in the USA from the 1930s onwards and came
to the fore in the 1960s and 1970s. Translations and translated examples provided
much of the data in these studies (e.g. Di Pietro 1971, James 1980 and later
Connor 1996). The contrastive approach heavily influenced important linguistic
research into translation, such as Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Catford (1965),
even if it did not incorporate sociocultural and pragmatic factors nor sufficiently
the role of translation as a communicative act. The continued application of
linguistics-based models has demonstrated their obvious and inherent link with
translation. Among the specific models used are those related to generative
grammar, functional linguistics and pragmatics (see Chapters 3 to 6 ).
The more systematic, linguistic-oriented, approach to the study of translation
began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s.
There are a number of now classic examples:
■ Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet produced their Stylistique comparée du
français et de l’anglais (1958), a contrastive study of French and English
which introduced key terminology for describing translation. It was not translated
into English until 1995;
■ Alfred Malblanc (1944/1963) had done the same for translation between
French and German;
■ Georges Mounin’s Les problèmes théoriques de la traduction (1963) examined
linguistic issues of translation;
■ Eugene Nida (1964a) incorporated elements of Chomsky’s then fashionable
generative grammar as a theoretical underpinning of his books, which were
initially designed to be practical manuals for Bible translators.
This more systematic approach began to mark out the territory of the ‘scientific’
investigation of translation. The word science was used by Nida in the title of his
1964 book ( Toward a Science of Translating , 1964a). The German equivalent,
Übersetzungswissenschaft , was taken up by Wolfram Wilss in his teaching and
research at the Universität des Saarlandes at Saarbrücken, by Werner Koller in
Heidelberg and by the Leipzig School, where scholars such as Otto Kade and
Albrecht Neubert became active (see Snell-Hornby 2006). At that time, even the
name of the emerging discipline remained to be determined, with other candidates
staking their claim, such as translatology and its counterparts Translatologie
in German, traductologie in French and traductología in Spanish (e.g. Vázquez-
Ayora, 1977 and the substantial contribution of Hurtado Albir, 2001).
Translating Literature
In translating a literary text, one should start by taking into account that “ a literary text is made up of a complex set of systems existing in a dialectal relationship with other sets outside its boundaries”. (Bassnett, 1988: 77).
According to Lotman, the reader may have four essential positions regarding the text (apud Bassnett, 1988; 77-78):
1. The reader who focuses on the content as matter;
2. The reader who grasps the complexity of the structure of a work;
3. The reader who deliberately extrapolates one level of the work for a specific purpose;
4. The reader who discovers elements not basic to the gebesis of the text.
The first task that a translator should accomplish is to understrand correctly and completely the text in the SL. The translator establishes the denotation, that is the meaning of the words, with the help of dictionaries. The problems that can appear at this stage are: polysemy, homonymy, false friends and synonymy, but these problems cand be solved with the help of specialized dictionaries. Another problem is accentuation which can be grammatical or phonological. The translator should pay attention to the modality involving the attitude of the speaker. Modality has three levels: the intellective level, the emotional level, and volitional level.
Connotations are also an important part. The translator will find easier to grasp the objective connotations, that is the hidden meaning of a word which is known by a larger social group. Connotations can be found in dictionaries.
To summarize, a very important charcateristic of a SL text which shoul be rendered in the TL is style, defined by Leon Leviţchi as “ the specific way in which the author organized his message in point of coherence and expression, in his desire to value it at the utmost in the conscience of the potential reader.” (1993: 98, our translations).
Translating Prose
Hilaire Belloc laid down six rule for the translator of prose texts:
1. The translator should consider the work as an integral unit and translate in sections, asking himself before each section what is the whole sense he has to render ;
2. The translator shoull render idiom by idiom and idioms demand translation into another form than that of the original ;
3. The translator must render “intention by intention”, intention being the weight a given expression may have in a particular context in the SL, that would be disproportionate if translated literally into the TL ;
4. The translator should be careful with false friends ;
5. The translator is advised to “transmute boldly” ;
6. The translator should never embellish.
The central problem for the prose translator is to determine the translation units. This should be done by considering the function of the text and of the devices within the text.
Translating Dramatic Texts
With theatre translation the problem is that the text is only one element in the totality of theatre discourse. Since the play text is written for voices, it contains also a set of paralinguistic ytems, where oitch, intonation, spped, accent are all signifiers.
The translator should be concerned with the function of the text to be translated, i.e. the performance aspect of the text and its relationship with the audience. The dialogue is characterised by rhythm, intonation patterns, loudness, and the translator must sense thsese elements and take into account the fact that the theatre text is designed to be spoken and listened to, and not (only) read.
The target language version must be performable and here the translator must take into account the changes that have taken place in time and the fact that acting systems and concepts of the theatre also differ in different national context. An 18th century translation of Racine’s Andromache (1674) by Ambrose Phillips was restructured by him for the Enghlish audience. The translation was a great success, but it contained substantial alternations of the play: the text was shortened in places, some speeches and even whole scenes were added. Phillip’s principal criteria for translation were probably: the playability of the text, it relationship to the established conventions of the theatre of his day, and the clarity of the interrelationship between the characters
Translating Poetry
The translation of poetry is the most challenging form of literary translation. From a strictly linguistic point of view, poetry appears as a superior form of synonymy at all levels: lexical, grammatical, syntagmatic. (Bantaş, 1998: 121). The first step in the translation process is a “translation-oriented text analysis” (Bantaş, 1988) which will present the poem as a number of n of element disposed in one or more types of series, chosen or adopted by the poet. (Bantaş, 1988: 126). The secomd step in the translation process transforms the translator into a poet who is supposed to re-write the original poem in TL. In translating it, he should resort to the same structures and patterns which form the orginal SL code: rhymed verse or free verse or blank verse, the translator in not supposed to break these patterns or to introduce rhymes when the poet chose free verse.
The translator willing to play the part of a poet in front of the TL audience, has two major ‘obligations’ (Bantaş, 1988: 126):
1. To decipher the semantic code of the original (denotation and connotation) as well as its formal system (images, figures of speech, prosody);
2. To render the same elements on the same levels, avoiding both semantic and expressive losses as well as semantic, expressive and clarity gains.
Andre Lefevere finds various methods of translating a poem that they will be mentioned here in order to enumerate types of mistakes that should be avoided by translator. (Bassnett, 1988: 81-82):
1. Phonemic translation, which attempts to reproduce the SL sound in the TL while at the same time producing an acceptable paraphrase of the sense. This can be successfully applied only to onomatopoeia.
2. Literal translation, where the emphasis on word-for-word translation distorts the sense and the syntax of the original
3. Metrical translation, where the dominant criterion is the reproduction of the SL metre.
4. Poetry into prose, which leads to distortion of the sense, communicative value and syntax of the SL text, but not to the same extent as in the case of the literal or metrical types of translation.
5. Rhymed translation, where the translator ‘enters into a double bondage’ of metre and rhyme.
6. Blank verse translation, where the translator changes the form of the original, but obtains a greater accuracy.
7. Interpretation, where the terms of version and imitation are discussed. In Lefevere’s view, the version retains the substance of the SL text but changes its form, and the imitation is a poem produced by the translator himself which has only ‘title and point of departure, if those, in common with the source text’.
2.William Golding
2.1. Life and List of Literary Works
The famous English writer William Gerald Golding was born in 1911 in Saint
Columb Minor in Cornwall, England. Since childhood William Golding was educated at
the Marlborough Grammar School, where his father works, Golding‟s father Alec
Golding was a science master, and His mother, Mildred, kept house at 29. He studied
physics and English literature at Marlboro and Oxford University. Later Golding
changed at Brasenose College, Oxford. Although he is educated to be a scientist
because his father wanted that, but the Golding was interested in literature, he was
interested first to Anglo-Saxon texts and then to poetry, which he likes a lot. At Oxford
he studied natural science for two years and then he transferred to a program for English
literature and philosophy. Next that he worked in different works at a settlement house
and in small theater companies as both an actor and a writer, Golding became a
schoolmaster at Wordsworth's School in Salisbury. During the Second World War he
joined the Royal Navy, then he returned to Bishop Wordsworth's School, and there he
taught until 1960s.The British novelist William Golding is also a poet, playwright and
Nobel Prize for Literature laureate, the best known novel among his works is „‟Lord of
the Flies‟‟. He was also awarded the Booker Prize for literature in 1980 for his novel
„‟Rites of Passage‟‟. In 2008, The Times classified Golding a third on their list of the 50
best British writers since 1945.
Golding married Ann Brookfield, she was an analytic chemist who was born on
September 30th, 1939 and they had two children, Judy and David. Judy is an author.
William Golding participated in Second World War. Golding joined the Royal Navy in
1940. Golding fought in the Royal Navy, During World War II, and he was also
involved in falling of the battleship of Germany. He also participated in the invasion of
Normandy, at the end of war, he returned to work in teaching and writing. In 1985,
Golding and his wife moved to Tullimaar House, near Cornwall, where he died of a
heart disease. (Ghaddab Nesrine, Analytical Study and Critical Reception of William Golding’s ‘’Lord of the Flies’’, 2012)
William Golding was awarded several times during his life. He won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Darkness Visible in 1979. Just one year after he won the Booker McConnell Prize for Rites of Passage and finally he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1983.
The Nobel Foundation cited in 1983:
"His novels which, with the perspicuity of realistic narrative art and the diversity and universality of myth, illuminate the human condition in the world of today".
List of literary works:
1952 He began work on a novel he called ‘Strangers from Within’.
1953 In January he started sending the novel to publishers. Many rejected it, until in September Golding sent it to Faber and Faber, where it was eventually accepted.
1954 In September, after changes to the text, it was published as Lord of the Flies.
1955 The Inheritors was published.
1956 Pincher Martin was published. Golding also contributed the story ‘Envoy
Extraordinary’ to Sometime, Never: three tales of the imagination (published by Eyre and Spottiswoode). The other two stories were by John Wyndham and Mervyn Peake.
1956-7 By now Golding had some involvement with literary life in London. He started writing for The Bookman and The Listener, and began broadcasting.
1958 The Brass Butterfly, his play starring Alistair Sim and adapted from his story
‘Envoy Extraordinary’, opened in Oxford on 24 February, toured the provinces, and then ran for a month in London. The text of the play was published in July.
1959 In October Free Fall was published.
1962 While in America Golding worked on drafts of The Spire, as well as delivering the first version of his lecture ‘Fable’, on Lord of the Flies.
1964 The Spire was published in April.
1965 Golding collected some of his essays and reviews in The Hot Gates.
1967 The Pyramid was published in book form in June.
1971 The Scorpion God, which reprinted ‘Envoy Extraordinary’ and added two new stories, was published in October. From the autumn of 1971 he kept a journal, which started as a record of dreams but gradually became an account of his attempts to write, and of personal experiences.
1979 Darkness Visible was published.
1980 Rites of Passage was published.
1982 A Moving Target, a new collection of essays and reviews, was published.
1984 The Paper Men was published.
1985 An Egyptian Journal was published.
1986 Faber and Faber published William Golding: The Man and his Books. A
Tribute on his 75th Birthday, edited by John Carey.
1987 Close Quarters was published, a sequel to Rites of Passage.
1989 Fire Down Below, the final novel of the Sea Trilogy, was published, bringing its hero Edmund Talbot to Australia.
1991 He revised the separate volumes of his Sea Trilogy, to