Taoism, also known as Daoism, is an ancient pantheistic religion that emphasises living in harmony with the Tao or ‘The Way’. Taoist ethics tend to differ between schools, but they all share the principles of effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, and the Three Treasures: compassion, frugality, and humility.
The Tao Te Ching is seen as one of the cornerstones of Taoism and is its fundamental religious text. The text’s true author and date of its composition are still hotly debated, with the oldest known portions of the text dating back to the 4th century BCE. However, other portions of the text have been written, or compiled, at a later date. The Tao Te Ching also had a strong influence on other schools in China including Legalism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism. The influence of the Tao Te Ching spread across most of East Asia, and is one of the most translated works of literature today. The composition of the Tao Te Ching has largely been attributed to Laozi, a somewhat mythical figure in Chinese history whose very existence is debated among historians. However, Taoism is a culmination of various philosophical and religious practices and in this way, elements of Taoism can be traced back even further, with many historians associating the origin of the Tao with the Yellow Emperor Huangdi (2697-2597 BCE).
Until 142 CE, Taoism did not exist as an organised religion. This changed when the Celestial Masters sect was founded by Zhang Doaling. Daoling proclaimed that Laozi had appeared before him and commanded him to cleanse the world of decadence and to establish a state for the ‘chosen people’. At the height of this movement, the Celestial Masters controlled a theocratic state in what is now known as the Chinese province of Sichuan.
KEY BELIEFS AND SUPERNATURAL POWERS AND/OR DEITIES
The Tao or Dao is a Chinese word that translates to ‘way’ or ‘path’. The Tao is the intuitive ‘knowing’ of life that cannot be fully grasped as a concept but is known through the experiences throughout one’s life. Unlike many typical cultural values, especially those in ancient times, the Tao emphasises the weak over the strong, the feminine over the masculine, and the space between things rather than the things themselves. The Tao Te Ching outlines that the Tao is not a ‘name’ for a ‘thing’, but is the natural order of the universe from which all things are derived from.
Inaction is the general goal of Taoists and it involves not applying a will to a matter. A Taoist believes that if one does nothing, everything will fall into place naturally. Along with this key belief is the idea that reality is subjective and is made subjectively. So there is no real reality or truth, but bits and pieces of it in individuals. Along with these general concepts are three main Virtues called the Three Treasures: compassion, moderation, and humility. These concepts can summarize a lot about native Chinese philosophy and the Chinese way of life.
The three virtues go along with the main concept of inaction. If people are too wilful, it means they are proud, not humble, and striving too much. Wilfulness and too much unmoderated behaviour causes turmoil. In contrast, people living a noble or virtuous way would appear to exert little or no effort. The appearance of too much effort means one is not virtuous. An individual’s noble way is the harmonious way with society.
Taoism does not have any Gods. However, the Tao in itself is the path and the correct way to live one’s life. The Tao essentially encompasses everything and is the meaning of life. There are many different deities in Taoism. An example of this is the San Kuan, three deities that keep a register for good and evil deeds and give rewards or punishment accordingly. Another example is the San-Ch’ing, or the Three Pure Ones. These three beings are believed to be different manifestations of Laozi. These deities were not seen as rulers but as beings who seek to save mankind by teaching and benevolence. Taoism also has a number of deities that appeal to certain groups in society. Some of these include:
• Han Chung Li- a man who achieved immortality and is now a deity that represents military men.
• Li T'ieh-kuai- a deity that represents the crippled and the deformed. He is often depicted with an iron crutch and a gourd said to contain medicine to heal the sick.
• Ts’ao Kuo-Chiu represents the nobility as he was connected to the Imperial Sung Dynasty.
Although there are many key religious figures in Taoism, they are all thought to be derived from the Tao, which is the essence of everything. In this way, there are no Gods in this religion, with the Tao being revered as such.
INFLUENCE ON THEIR OWN SOCIETY IN WHICH THE RELIGION EXISTED
Although not popular in wider society, with only 6.4% of people around the world identifying as Taoist, Taoism has had a huge influence on Chinese society in the past and the present. 30% of Chinese citizens identify as Taoist or a similar folk religion. Taoism has had a huge effect on the way the Chinese people act, the way they view the world, and their activities they perform. An example of this is Qigong, an ancient Taoist breathing and concentration technique that ‘gently stretches and massages muscles and tendons and promotes circulation through joints and tissues with a very sophisticated and scientific pumping flowing motion. The more relaxed and focused on the body the greater the blood circulation effects you will get. The more focused and relaxed you are the more your mind becomes calm and strong.’ (http://www.qigong.org). When combined with acupuncture, Qigong is one of the most important Chinese medical therapy practices that is still in use today.
Another element of Taoist culture that has undoubtedly had an influence on Chinese society is the concept of Yin and Yang. This ancient philosophy describes how seemingly opposite forces can actually be related and interconnected to each other. Examples of this in the real world include fire and water, strong and weak, and light and dark. Although this philosophy appears in many ancient Chinese belief systems, the original Yin and Yang can be traced back to the Oneness that is related to the Tao. The philosophy of Yin and Yang is described in detail in the Tao Te Ching in chapter 42. This duality that is shown in the Yin and Yang is the cornerstone for most traditional Chinese medicine, with a balance of Yin and Yang in one’s body equating to good health. It is also a central doctrine in many forms of Chinese martial arts including t’ai chi and Chi Kung.
RITUALS/CEREMONIES
At certain dates, food is set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased. An example of this is the Qingming festival, an occasion to honour and pray for people’s ancestors. The food that is layed out often includes slaughtered animals such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper, or Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones.
A major Taoist ritual is known as the chiao or jiao. This is a rite of cosmic renewal that comprises of several, smaller rituals. The term jiao means ‘offering’ or ‘sacrifice’. These rituals are usually of a large scale, organised by local communities or religious associations. A jiao may be performed at intervals of three, five, or more years depending on local traditions. It is usually performed as a recurrent rite for renewing life and blessings for the community, or a rite that responds to immediate problems such as drought or epidemics. The jiao is usually led by a Taoist priest and the event itself can last up to a week or more. Typical events in the ceremony include performances by theatre troops, trance performances by mediums, and large scale offerings by the community at their local temple.
Another ceremony that is held is Qiu Chuji’s birthday. Every year on the 19th day of the first lunar month a festival is held at the White Cloud Temple in celebration of Qiu Chuji's birthday. Qiu Chuji, more commonly known by his Taoist name Changchun zi, was a Taoist disciple, and was the most famous among the Seven True Taoists of the North. He was also the founder of the Dragon Gate sect of Taoism, which incorporates elements of Buddhism and Confucianism. It was thought that Qiu would return to earth as an immortal on this day. The festival was first held during the Yuan dynasty, but was suspended after the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. The festival was revived in the 1990s, and continues to be held to this day
HOW THE ANCIENT RELIGION PROVIDES A DISTINCTIVE RESPONSE TO THE SEARCH FOR MEANING FOR HUMANS
The ethics and teachings of Taoism offer people a path in which they can find meaning in their lives. Taoists believe that it is less important to do good deeds than to be good people. In this way they can get the most out of their lives and also have a positive impact on their community and the world as a whole. Taoism is a very passive religion, which teaches its followers to abandon their aggressive and egotistic ways, but rather embrace an altruistic, modest way of life, which, it is believed, will ultimately overpower the forceful, assertive and selfish way of life.
In the Tao religion, the idea of not initiating action or intervening in life’s events is clearly established. Taoist people are taught not to change the course of a situation, because being so ignorant of the world, they are unlikely to have a positive impact on the world, but will most likely make it worse.
In Taoism, it is important not to let your desires or attachment control your behaviour or drive you to do something. For this reason, impulsive decisions are not encouraged, and all decisions should be taken into the context of the Tao.
It is via these key tenets of Taoism that adherents learn to embrace the natural flow of the universe. By doing this and by letting events run their course, Taoists can begin to undergo the natural path that is the Tao.
INTERESTING INFORMATION
• The Yin and Yang has become one of the most recognisable symbols in popular culture in modern times, appearing everywhere from movies to tattoo parlours.
• Violence is considered to be a last resort among Taoists.
• Due to the fact that most of the true elements of Taoism are only passed on orally and are not written down, the only way one can learn about Taoism in its true form is by studying under a master.
• Taoism teaches that committing sins and bad deeds will result in illness.