Prologue
Humans are storytellers, mythmakers and are destroying the earth. Humans are currently playing global endgame. Humanity has a weak grasp on the planet. Problems have been created by man and the point of no return is near. The author hypothesizes that putting aside half of the earth for wildlife, it can be preserved.
1
An asteroid hit the earth sixty-five million years ago, causing various economic episodes, such as volcanic eruptions and sunless skies. Temperature dropped due to soot in the air causing seventy percent of all species to go extinct. Microorganisms survived on the dead for as long as they could until they declined as well. That was the end of the Mesozoic Era and the beginning of the Cenozoic Era, the current era. The Cenozoic Era is divided into seven epochs, and the last and current epoch is the Holocene. The Holocene represents humanity and the Chicxulub strike, an extinction peak of destruction. Many scientists and authors suggest the Holocene is over and the earth is now beginning the Anthropocene which would signify the chemical changes in the soil, machines, and rapid climate change. In other words, the Anthropocene is the Epoch of Man.
2
The biosphere is the entirety of all living things on the planet at any given time. It is separated into upper and lower boundaries. The biosphere is membrane-like, as it weighs almost nothing and it cannot be seen by the human eye. Humans are the self proclaimed rulers of the biosphere and have explored it from end to end. Although humans are the most powerful in the biosphere, people rely on other organisms to survive. All species are affected by other organisms and the environment. Invasive species have the ability to completely take over a habitat. Humans have the power to protect the rest of life, but instead are prone to wipe out and replace it.
3
Biodiversity on Earth is almost immune to extinction. As fast as a species can go extinct, new species are being discovered. Humans can choose to let species go extinct for our own good. However, species are beneficial to humans to understanding life. Many species are still unknown, humans know vertebrates best but plants aren’t well known. Known species are classified by Latinized double names. The media obscures science so people are unaware of how many species are yet to be discovered. The average person only knows the names of about thirteen invertebrates, which are actually world dominant. Each species is different and all deserve attention for its survival and natural environment.
4
Rhinoceroses are a highly endangered species. White rhinos are functionally extinct while black rhinos are totally extinct. Poachers are a major cause of rhino endangerment. The Javan rhino resides in Asia and the last we knew of was killed by a poacher in April 2010. The Sumatran rhino is similarly rare and endangered. Two captured Sumatran rhinos live at the Cincinnati zoo where they will be for the short life they have. Rhinoceroses are a spiritual species that scientists are working to preserve.
5
Scientists have tried to recover endangered wild populations, however no cure exists. Frogs and other amphibians have been invaded by chytrids, causing population decline. Invasive species are major threats, but there is evidence that they can naturalize and adapt to environments. Birds are being wiped out by human construction and development. Small bodies of water habitats that are susceptible to species endangerment because humans are short of clean freshwater. Dams are dangerous to organisms that live in the water. Species that go extinct cannot be brought back and important scientific information disappears into Earth’s history forever.
6
Futurist Stewart Brand once wrote “We are as gods” and “have to get good at it.” This suggests Earth is our planet and our job is to rule over it. Humans are little gods learning about the world and how to make it even better each day. Many would agree on long term goals of long life, plentiful resources, freedom, reproduction, and excitement in all that is done. Humans are one of the few species who have the brain capacity to be as great as they are. People need to settle down before destroying the planet. The reality is humans are not as gods and could very well ruin the planet with that mentality.
7
A small minority of people like seeing extinction take place. Pathogens and humans are two major causes to species, as they involuntarily accelerate extinction for their own benefit. Human activity caused extinction rates to multiply by at least one hundred times higher than it was before. This brings questions to global conservation efforts and the impact of governmental regulation. Success stories such as those of the yellow-shouldered blackbird, green sea turtle, and the bighorn sheep show that conservation works. On the other hand, many species have adapted well and thrive in a humanized habitat. Ninety-nine percent of all species that have ever lived have gone extinct. This brings another question, why is extinction so bad?
8
Climate change is at a dangerous level, ever since carbon levels increased in the Industrial Revolution. Once the average surface temperature reaches 2°C, severe heat and weather episodes will become normal. This process of new climate and geography has already begun, with the oceans rising three millimeters per year. Political officials are agreeing to reduce carbon emissions into the atmosphere. A tragic example of global warming can be found in the sea, where resources are becoming scarce. Ocean species are vanishing due to climate change, and now all there is to do is try and stop it.
9
A growing minority of conservationists agree that the world has been changed by humanity beyond repair. A dangerous worldview where humans are the only important species would be the downfall of biodiversity. Although extinction is an epidemic sweeping the earth, most smaller animals and plants are the same today as they were fifteen thousand years ago. The conservation movement is credited with this, and national parks are said to be one of the best ideas in US history. Scientists have their own opinions and worldviews on the future of Earth. Alexander von Humboldt’s idea on this subject is extremely relevant: “The most dangerous worldview is the worldview of those who have not viewed the world.”
10
The Anthropocene is the result of unawareness of biodiversity. There are debates on conservation science, about which organisms and environments should be protected. A solution of conserving whole ecosystems rather than a single species (along with having people and communities in mind) was put in place. Ecosystems are not exhibits for our viewing and maintaining, they are the homes of wildlife. In order to preserve life, we need to give it a chance to live on its own and respect the natural aspect, avoiding quick fixes and nostrums.
11
There are two types of scientists: the ones who use science to make a living, and the ones who find a way to make a living so they can be scientists. The second group of scientists are the honest ones with low pay and their interest is always in the advancement of the science community. Discovery of species and rediscovery of extinct species excites these scientists. The author and other naturalists have great passion for science. They want to preserve the earth for all future generations to love it as they have.
12
In order to preserve biodiversity, it is necessary to understand ecological communities and how they interact. Most studies fall short of gathering the data needed to show complete species interaction. It’s hard for scientists to find out the cause of environmental change without enough data. The best studies occur in small ecosystems with simple biodiversity. Ecology is a cumulative subject which is best mastered from the bottom up. Scientific research isn’t successful without following scientific order. This is ecology’s shortfall. Anthropocene enthusiasts focus on ecosystems as a whole and see individual species as interchangeable parts that fill them up. Ecosystem research starts with biodiversity studies of species, it starts with taxonomy. Information on species is important so we have it when these species become pests or start to cause disease. The hierarchy of biodiversity goes ecosystem, species, gene. It is important to study it as a whole in order to save it.
13
The earth is composed of two different living worlds: aqueous and terrestrial. If one organism from one world crosses into the other, they rarely survive. As terrestrial organisms, humans have yet to explore all depths of the aqueous world. Still, we continue to harm this world for profitable resources. That being said, marine biodiversity still persists and few species have been driven to extinction. The beach species, or the aqueous meiofauna consist of invertebrate animals who thrive in the sandy shallow water environment. The offshore coral reefs are known as the rainforests of the sea for their complexity and biodiversity. Bacteria and archaea live on the surface of the water. Marine insects are rare and few have been found living in the ocean. The deep scattering layer of the ocean is home to marlin, tuna and big game species. As night falls, the variety of fish increases and squid and crustaceans become active. Many types of sharks and other large organisms have to yet to be discovered, along with the small aqueous creatures swarming around them. The ocean is home to the least known forms of life.
14
Emphasis on biodiversity causes us to think about the flora and fauna that live in our bodies. Bacteria inhabit our bodies and we have a mutualistic relationship with them. Microbiome research is important to the medical field. Microbial genetic diversity is much different than the rest of life. Humans and potatoes have more similar DNA than two dissimilar types of bacteria. DNA technology is crucial in discovery of bacteria and other microscopic organisms. If humans were to cause the planet to downfall, microbes and invertebrates would be the ones to survive and help preserve life on Earth.
15
Most of the human population is unaware of all the beauty the biosphere has to offer. The author put together an objective list of the best places of the biosphere. The Redwood Forests of California, The Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands and The Longleaf Pine Savanna of the American South are among the best in North America, highlighting the forests in this region. Cuba and Hispaniola have extensive flora and fauna, winning the title of the best in the West Indies. South and central America seems to be the author’s favorite region. The author considers the Amazon River Basin, The Guiana Shield, The Tepuis and others are among his favorite there. Europe is home to the countless forests and Lake Baikal, the oldest and deepest freshwater lake in the world. Africa and Madagascar have beautiful and spiritual forests and grasslands virtually untouched by humans, like the Atewa Forest in Ghana. The mountain ranges in Asia have unique and rich fauna like nowhere else in the world. New Guinea and Hawaii are the two islands that make the list, and the author also points out the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica. Wilson’s favorite place is the eastern slopes and foothills of the Andes, where the largest number of wild species and animals inhabit a single place.
16
History is thought to be the evolution of humans, but millions of histories come with millions of species. The average lifespan of a species is roughly a million years. This is plenty of time for a species to evolve and create its own history.
17
Earth is lucky, it is in the right spot relative to the sun to have a climate that is suitable for life. It took one billion years of evolution for a single celled organism to evolve into a complex life form like a human or a lion. Humans have a tendency to only think about the short term rather than the long term. This kind of thinking led us into the water crisis we have today. With overpopulation, water is becoming scarce. Humans are ravenous and when the time comes, anarchy will ensue for resources. The Anthropocene calls for total human control, to modify the earth solely in favor of humans. This could go terribly wrong, and we only have one shot. Wilson proposes the safe option of Half-Earth to avoid the gamble.
18
Parts of the world are untouched by humans and will remain as wilderness if left alone. On the other hand, some landscapes need to be restored from the ground up by humans. Conservation programs bring back keystone species and nurture ecosystems back to their original form before humans. Conservation is happening today, such as prohibiting hunting of extinct species in the wild. Conservation will also help scientists learn and teach about biodiversity, paleontology and ecology.
19
The goal is to return the extinction rate to the prehman rate of one to ten species extinct per million species each year. The current rate of biodiversity loss could easily cause most of the species present right now to be completely wiped out in the near future. The crucial part of saving biodiversity is saving habitats. Half of sustainable species can survive if 90% of their habitat is destroyed. 85% more species will survive with the Half-Earth theory because it includes the habitats of the most endangered species. Only 17.8% of the earth is currently preserved by law. Rare species will have room to grow and local species can avoid the construction and development by humans in and around their habitat.
20
Half-Earth does not propose dividing the planet literally into halves or large pieces that would throw humans out. Human’s future ecological footprint will have to be reduced if we continue to grow at the current rate. Reducing ecological footprint will eventually lead to lower fertility after two generations. As technology improves, cheaper alternatives to current technology will be used and we can stop developing and producing at such a rapid rate. One of the most important parts of Half-Earth is to see the earth as a whole ecosystem, as it is, not how we can make it to be.
21
The last part of Half-Earth is getting world leaders to agree and give up their land to benefit all. This major shift in moral compass will help Earth escape its current state of suffering. People need to keep in mind that we came from the wild and without Earth, we wouldn’t exist. Half-Earth simply and easily proposes not to do any further harm to the biosphere.