Iran, more commonly known as Persia, is one of the oldest, continuous civilizations, dating back to 7000 BC. Iran was first unified under the Medes empire in 625 BC. Following the Medes empire was the Achaemenid Empire, which ruled from 550-330 BC, was initiated by Cyrus the Great. Of all the Persian empires, the Achaemenid was the first to control land on three continents, from Central Asia to North Africa to the Balkans. This was one of the largest empires of its time and is considered the first world empire. This strong empire placed Iran as one of the global leaders and this position was maintained over 1000 years through the succession of later empires: Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian. For much of its early existence Iran’s main religious was Zoroastrianism, with other religions present on a much smaller scale, but the eventual Muslim conquest in 633 AD led to the Islamization of Iran. Most of these events would not be possible without the access that the Great Silk Road allowed through Central Asia and China. Used for trading spices, fabrics and other goods, the road spanned over 4,000 miles in its prime. Trade routes were present on smaller scales but none compared to the length covered on the Silk Road. However, the Silk Road allowed for more than the exchange of goods and services, it fostered and facilitated the exchange of ideas, religion and power. This further use of the Silk Road is what helped Persia to maintain their position of power within Central Asia.
One of the first major trade routes in Persia that predates the Silk Road was known as the Persian Royal Road. The Persian Royal Road, which covered roughly 1700 miles, was established around 450 BC under the Achaemenid empire. It was established under the guidance of Persian King of Kings Darius I. His main goal upon the creation of the Royal Road was to allow for faster communication throughout the Empire but for Darius I, it was about more than simply communicating, it was also about allowing for a transference of ideas and placing an importance on intelligence. In terms of speed, Darius I and his men were strategic in placing checkpoints along the route. These checkpoints were a new man and horse to continue the next day’s journey. It is believed that there as many men and horses as the number of days it took to complete the journey. Having these checkpoints for each day allowed for the journey to be completed faster that a normal traveler would be, typically taking three months for them to complete the journey. However positive of an impact the Persian Road had on the empire, it was ultimately what led to the downfall of the empire as well.
Alexander the Great, hailing from Ancient Greece, succeeded his father, Philip II, at age twenty and became King of Macedonia. Upon his coronation, he inherited a stable kingdom and an army with a lot of experience under their belt. Using these to his advantage, Alexander the Great led a series of campaigns to conquer the Persian Empire. To achieve his goal, Alexander the Great used the Persian Royal Road to his advantage and travelled along it in a series of battles. He managed to defeat Darius III in battle in 330 BC and controlled the Achaemenid empire in its entirety, thus expanding the Macedonian Empire significantly. The conquests of Alexander the Great also ushered in an era of Hellenistic civilization, which is another way of saying the expansion of Greek culture in all conquered regions. Alexander’s reign may not have been as swift or far-reaching if not for his use of the Persian Royal Road to his advantage. It was created to ease travel between the empire for the King and it’s possible that Darius I never imagined that it could be used against him in such a manner.
When thinking of the Silk Road, the first thing that come to mind is that it originated in China as a manner to export silk, hence how the name “Silk Road” has been adopted over the centuries. However, the name Silk Road is misleading and some historians prefer to call it the Silk Routes because it was not a single path. Instead, the famed silk road was a series of arteries controlling the flow of customs, culture, and goods through the heart of the continent. The Silk Road emerged under the Han Dynasty, who ruled China from 202 BC to 220 AD. The beginning of this route was an accidental find. Emperor Wu sent an emissary in 138 BC to negotiate help from indigenous persons because they were being harassed by nomadic tribes. The emissary, Zhang Qian, came across many civilizations on their journey and came into contact with many cultures including Greco-Bactrians who were descendants from the army of Alexander the Great. The purpose of the journey, beyond communication, was to gather horses to assist the Chinese army in dealing with their nomadic terrors. The horses did in fact make a difference and gave the Chinese the upper hand to defeat the nomadic people. After realizing how successful and beneficial the trade was, Emperor Wu began to wonder how else they could benefit from trade with the west and that marked the unofficial beginning of the Silk Road in 130 BC.
At the same time the Silk Road was emerging in China, the region previously under control of the Macedonian empire and now under the control of the Seleucid King, Sidetes, was fighting a battle of his own with the Parthian people. The Parthians, under command of Mithridates I was attempting to expand his empire into Sidetes’ kingdom, known better as Mesopotamia. Eventually the Parthians won the war and gained control of Mesopotamia and with it gained control of the large portion of the silk road that ran through it. This put the Parthians and Mesopotamia in a position of great power as they were the intermediary between china and the west. The Parthians were unafraid to take advantage of their location and used it to their full extent. They operated under the mentality that “the more land you controlled, the more of the silk road you controlled, and the more tariffs and taxes you could impose on merchants travelling through your area.”
Having an interconnected series of roads on such a grand scale had major positive implications whether those be economic, social, health or political, for the areas it reached. The economic benefits are perhaps the most obvious. The first economic benefit comes for the citizens. The silk road encouraged the trading of commodities which in turn encouraged the rise of merchants so that they would have products to sell on the silk road and earn a living from. Whether it be weaving fabrics, searching for precious gems, growing grains or other similar. The economic gains were more prevalent for those that lived in a region that had a monopoly, more or less, on their major export. The best example of this perhaps the namesake, Silk. China kept the method for the production of silk a secret from the buyers so that there would continue to be a need for their silk specifically. The same idea goes for the Persian tapestries that were highly sought after in china. The Chinese were unfamiliar with the fabric weaving methods and the Persians were inclined to keep it a secret so that travelers would continue to come west for their products. Because these two distinct fields were so sought after on the trade routes, locals would learn how to make the products so that they could sell them and earn a profit and lead a better life than before. Beyond citizens, there are massive economic benefits for the state, country, and/or empire in control of their specific region. The Seleucids, who ruled Mesopotamia prior to the Parthians and after the Macedonians, were notorious for the tariffs and taxes they imposed on any merchant travelling through the portions of the Silk Road under their control. Tariffs and taxes were not a practice that ended after the Parthians conquered the Seleucians in 130 BC. If anything. It became even more prominent because the Parthians main revenue came from those taxes imposed and were partially responsible for helping them stay in control of the Mesopotamia region and keeping a powerhouse.
Another benefit to come from Silk Road was the potential political gain. Roads connecting everywhere made it easier for empires to expand and conquer each other. However, this is also a major negative outcome of the Silk Road. It may be easier to trade and support your people but it also opens the region to outside threats that before would have potentially had no access to the area. For every positive to come from the Silk Road, there is a negative as well. It is a double-edged sword that tests the regions.
The biggest benefit to come from the Silk Road is not the obvious goods exchanged between people but instead the ideas and customs and cultures that are exchanged. These mixing of cultures lead to the spread of religions that centuries before had almost died out. Throughout Persia and the surrounding areas, most people were adherent to Zoroastrianism, a religion developed in 6th century BC. Every Persian empire had Zoroastrianism as the main religion and it depended on the king as to how tolerant they were to other religions. After Persia fell under greek rule, after the fall of Alexander the Great, converted to Buddhism for the most part. So now Persia is a largely Buddhist region and after the Silk Road begins thriving under the Han and Tang Dynasties Buddhism begins spreading through china after Chinese came into contact with Buddhists throughout the Mesopotamian region.
When speaking of positives, one must also look at the negatives. And there are quite a few negatives associated with the Silk Road. There are personal dangers such as bandits who would wait to rob travelling merchants for their own personal gain. There was also the risk of deceit. A merchant might claim they have a porcelain pot that hails from china but it was actually crafted in Persia and is a fake. However, the biggest danger to people to come fro the Silk Road is the transfer of diseases. Recently, scientists have discovered remains of latrines along the route and have been able to analyze the fecal remains to determine the health of the travelers. Researchers found four different types of intestinal parasites including the Chinese liver fluke. The fecal matter was also able to confirm that the silk road was a vessel for the spread of the bubonic plague, leprosy, and anthrax.
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The Silk Road continued to thrive for centuries, it was perhaps its most prosperous under the Tang Dynasty, which ruled china from 618 AD to 907 AD. By 742 AD China had a population of nearly 2 million including Turkish, Iranian, and Indian foreigners living in the country as well. Eventually, the Mongols, led by well-known Genghis Khan began to conquer large portions of Asia. Khan was able to conquer the whole of China and established a new dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty. Unfortunately, the Mongolian empire was short lived and never reached the heights of grandeur that existed during the Tang Dynasty. The emergence of islam along the route, which had been temporarily halted by the Mongols, created a conflict of politics between people on the route and the presence of the middle man combined into the decline of the Silk road. Another halting factor came from the emergence of routes and trading by sea. Nautical developments, including stronger and safer ships, led to an increase of sea trading. It was easier, faster and more safe for merchants to trade their goods through the sea rather than by land. Travelling by sea created more problems for merchants because it introduced the threat of pirates and becoming lost at sea due to bad weather.