I researched to gain a greater understanding of the technical writings used by psychologists and how those writings are used in various jobs throughout the field, as well as to become more aware of what writing will look like in my future career. Psychology is a remarkably broad field. There are endless opportunities for a variety of research and clinical work in different settings, from schools to hospitals to private practice. Despite the varieties, the writing genre is the same across all specific professions in the field.
The duties of a psychologist vary depending on the location in which they work. In a research setting, psychologists conduct investigational empirical research on how different life activities affect a variety of facets of cognition, such as memory, health, and life longevity (Psychologist Job Duties, 2017). In schools, psychologists may treat students for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), for anxiety, depression, separation anxiety, or a variety of other psychological and behavioral issues (Psychologist Job Duties, 2017). Other kinds of jobs are specific to counseling for mental health, marital problems, or other difficulties (Psychologist Job Duties, 2017).
In the typical lab, based on my personal experience, the hierarchy is such that a head researcher oversees students at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. The undergraduate students work directly under the graduate students, who answer to the head researcher, often a professor if the research is done in a university setting. The types of writings done in the lab include data collection and note taking during experiments. This writing is needed to write up professional manuscripts for publishing at the conclusion of a research study, as well as to inform the public of the latest knowledge in psychology. The majority of writings are scientific manuscripts about empirical research studies, with an audience of educated peers in the field.
Methods
Personal Experience
I used my personal experiences working in the lab of Dr. Gary Elkins as a way of collecting data. Dr. Elkins is the overseeing professor of the Mind Body Medicine Lab at Baylor University. I am an undergraduate research assistant, and I work under a graduate student director and a PhD-holding clinical director. The research focus of this lab is mind-body interventions for symptoms, both physical and emotional. Currently, we are researching hypnotic intervention strategies in the treatment of menopause and fibromyalgia. Additionally, we are testing a new scale of hypnotic ability assessment, called the Elkins Hypnosis Susceptibility Scale. The hierarchy is consistent with that of a typical research laboratory, where a head researcher oversees graduate students who in turn oversee undergraduate students. While conducting research on live subjects, researchers keep detailed records before, during, and after running a study. Later, this data is coded into a computer system to be analyzed by a statistician. Eventually, this research will be used to write a professional book or peer-reviewed journal to be published for public use and knowledge.
Interview with Dr. Shawn Latendresse
I interviewed Dr. Shawn Latendresse, Assistant Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at Baylor University as a way of obtaining information about writings in the field of psychology. His focus is in developmental psychology, and his research interests culminate in studies on alcohol use and abuse. Furthermore, he works in the field by reviewing ad hoc manuscripts and by reviewing grants and panels for meetings of the many professional societies of which he is a member. For notes from the interview, see Appendix A.
Analysis of Genres
I analyzed Dr. Latendresse’s journal article entitled “Dimensionality and Genetic Correlates of Problem Behavior in Low-Income African American Adolescents” (Latendresse et al., 2015). To do this, I looked at each section of the manuscript and determined what the focus is and how it applies to a general understanding of writings in psychology. I used information I have learned from Dr. Latendresse’s Research Methods in Psychology class to understand what each section of a manuscript in psychology should look like. The abstract is intended to be a brief summary of the paper that follows, and it should give the reader a broad understanding of the purpose of the research and how it was conducted (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). The introduction follows a funnel format, beginning broadly and ending on hypotheses specific to the research the article is covering (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). It summarizes past research and explains the importance of new research (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). The methods section explains how the study was conducted, from participant selection to measures used to collect data (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). The results section gives a matter-of-fact account of the data collected, while the discussion section gives a critical analysis of the data and suggests ideas for future research (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013).
Results
The Scientific Writing Process
Dr. Latendresse, in my interview with him, said that the process of writing a manuscript is painful, time consuming, and difficult. The majority of writings in the field of psychology are scientific manuscripts based on empirical research studies. The audience for both manuscripts and professional presentations is largely peers in the field, though it varies by journal. Some journals are more interdisciplinary, so the author must know the audience and write what is important and necessary based on that knowledge. Scientific writing is formulaic, allowing anyone to jump in and learn. There are specific instructions that must be followed for each section of the paper. Dr. Latendresse said it is crucial to know the purpose of the study before beginning, outlining the gaps in the literature that make new research relevant. In the beginning of the writing process, it helps to write the methodology and the analytic approach to be used. Next, analyze data and write up the results. Finally, fill in the gaps in the manuscript. When it comes to revision, Dr. Latendresse revises as he goes. Each section is completed before he moves on, and the majority of writing is done in collaboration with other researchers.
A Plethora of Limitations
Funding, or lack thereof, creates limitations for researchers. Without funding, it is not possible to conduct most research. If a researcher has funding, Dr. Latendresse said that it is always in the back of the mind, as there is a constant pressure to be productive and successful. Deadlines are limiting, but they are good motivation to get a study done in a timely manner. Scientific writing itself can be a limitation. It is entirely different than creative writing or writing for a normal English class. Dr. Latendresse explained that he was always a good writer, but it took a long time to change the way he went about writing scientifically given that it must be concise but still clear in articulating information. Dr. Latendresse’s main advice for learning how to write within the limitations of scientific writing is that you cannot try to woo people with words, but you must instead let the data do the convincing.
APA Style
Scientific manuscripts in psychology are incredibly detailed and have specific and technical formatting rules that must be followed. American Psychological Association (APA) style is the formatting used most frequently to cite sources in social and behavioral sciences, including psychology (American Psychological Association, 2010). When writing a manuscript, a considerable amount of time is devoted to including proper citations and perfecting formatting. For example, explaining research properly in APA requires conciseness and articulate clarity. Unnecessary words or overly complex phrasing can present the research in an inaccurate way or a way that can be confusing for the readers (American Psychological Association, 2010). One of the most important parts of APA style is avoiding the use of the word “prove” (American Psychological Association, 2010). A single study cannot prove a theory or even a hypothesis. A research study can indicate a certain result, but it cannot prove it. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition can be referenced for further details about APA style (American Psychological Association, 2010).
Funnel Format
The abstract and introduction follow a funnel format, starting with a comprehensive overview of past research and explaining why new research is relevant. For example, Dr. Latendresse begins his article, “Dimensionality and Genetic Correlates of Problem Behavior in Low-Income African American Adolescents” by saying, “Researchers have long observed that problem behaviors tend to cluster together, particularly among adolescents,” (Latendresse et al., 2015). It then goes into an explanation of variables analyzed and the demographics of participants, in this case, “a representative community-based sample of 592 low-income African American adolescents (50.3% female), ages 13 to 18” (Latendresse et al., 2015). From there, contextual information about the research is given in the rest of the introduction. The introduction explains the holes in current literature that makes new research relevant and necessary. Additionally, the introduction gives operational definitions for terms or ideas that are not common knowledge.
Concise Methodology
The methods and results sections of a scientific manuscript are concise and methodical, presenting a clear layout of how the study was conducted and what quantifiable results were obtained (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). The methods section mainly explains how samples were selected. In his study, Dr. Latendresse recruited “from the Mobile Youth Study (MYS), a community-based, multiple cohort longitudinal study with annual data collection” (Latendresse et al., 2015). This section then explains the measures through which data is collected and gives the plan for how collected data will be analyzed. It is crucial for the results section to be succinct. Otherwise, the data will become convoluted and difficult to understand.
Technicalities in the Results Section
The results section of scientific manuscripts is nuanced, full of small but important details. This section is least understandable to those outside of the field for which the manuscript was written, as it is primarily made up of coefficients and numbers specific to the research conducted (Latendresse et al., 2015). Each variable used in the study is explained in several ways. First, variables are explained in relation to their impact on specific data from the research. Next, they are explained in relation to each other (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). Finally, they are explained in terms of real-world applications. In the results section, data is laid out in a clear and concise way, frequently in the form of a table or graph, or both (Latendresse et al., 2015).
The Value of Discussion
The discussion section of scientific manuscript in psychology gives a thorough explanation of the results obtained (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2013). This section relates data to real-world applications and implications and analyzes the successes and failures of the research design. It explains what worked well for data collection and analysis. For example, in the study by Dr. Latendresse, “Model-fitting comparisons suggest that the bi-factor model best accounted for the associations among the item-level data in the present sample” (Latendresse et al., 2015). This section should contrast the study with other studies on similar, identical, or entirely different topics. A critical account of the analysis used is needed, with explanations of significance relating to both existing literature and data collected from the study. Lastly, questions for future research are raised. Dr. Latendresse asked at the end of his study, “What then should be made of genetic associations identified via unidimensional models in the literature as compared to those found here?” (Latendresse et al., 2015). Most new research studies come from questions asked at the conclusion of studies.
Discussion
Throughout this research, I learned about the importance of technical writing in the field of psychology. Scientific manuscripts are highly technical and require attention to detail and precision in writing and formatting. It is important to talk with professionals in this field to understand the importance of these writings. Because of what I have learned, I will approach writing about future research in a different way. I will be more methodical and use a deliberate approach, being sure to follow the specific guidelines set up by the American Psychological System and always working to improve my writing so that it is more scientific. I have a greater appreciation for the difficulties faced by researchers when it comes to writing manuscripts, whether it is difficulties in funding, time constraints, or simply writer’s block. Without manuscripts written on psychological studies, the public would have no knowledge of what is happening in current research. Psychology is exceedingly relevant in the modern world, with many people wanting to understand themselves and others on a deeper level. With so much pseudoscience predominating popular culture, it is important for researchers conducting honest, factual studies to make their voices heard and their data available.