1.
a. This view is the horizontal view.
b. This view is the midsagittal view.
c. This view is the coronal view.
2.
a. This view is the vertical view.
b. This view is the lateral view.
c. This view is the medial view.
d. This view is the dorsal view.
e. This view is the midsagittal view.
f. This view is the lateral view.
g. This view is the dorsal view.
3. The components of the Central Nervous System (CNS) are the:
i. Cerebrum: where it is “concerned” with feeling and movement.
ii. Cerebellum: where it is mainly “concerned” with movement.
iii. Brain Stem: where it is can send information from the cerebrum to the spinal cord, and where breathing, consciousness and body temperature are controlled.
iv. Spinal Cord: where it sends information to the spinal nerves.
4. The components of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) are the:
i. Somatic PNS: where everything that is under voluntary control (ex. Innervates skin, joints, muscles).
ii. Visceral PNS: is the involuntary control or the automatic nervous system (ANS).
iii. Afferent and Efferent Axons: where the axon carry information toward or away from target.
5.
a. Afferent is to carry toward a certain point.
b. Efferent is to carry away from a certain point.
6.
a. I Olfactory Is the sensation of smell.
b. II Optic Is the sensation of vision.
c. III Oculomotor Is where the movement and control of the eye, eyelid, and pupil size.
d. IV Trochlear Is the movement of the eye.
e. V Trigeminal Is the sensation of touch in face and the movement of muscles in the face. Ex. Chewing
f. VI Abducens Is the movement of the eyes.
g. VII Facial The movement of the muscles for facial expression and sensation of taste (2/3).
h. VIII Auditory-Vestibular Sensation of hearing and balance.
i. IX Glossopharyngeal Movement of muscles in the throat, control of the salivary glands, sensation of taste (1/3), and the detection of blood pressure.
j. X Vagus The control of the heart, lungs, and abdominal organs.
k. XI Spinal Accessory Movement of the muscles of the throat and neck.
l. XII Hypoglossal Movement of the tongue.
7. The three meninges:
i. Dura Mater: Is the outer most covering of the membranes. It is tough and inelastic.
ii. Arachnoid Membrane: the middle layer covering of the membranes. It has a web like appearance.
iii. Pia Mater: the inner most covering of the membranes.
8. The Ventricular System is basically the caverns and canals of the brain that are filled with liquid. The CSF is created by choroid plexus and flows away from the cerebrum to the cerebellum.
9. Hydrocephalus is where there is fluid (CNF) that will flow back up to the brain and would swell the ventricles.
10. CLARITY is where researchers and scientists found a way to visualize very deep sections without having to section the brain (2013).
11. The MRI is more ideal to use. For it is more detailed and can brain slice in any location.
i. MRI: Also known as magnetic resonance imaging, can create a more detailed image than the CT. It works on how well hydrogen atoms respond in the brain in turn will send signals to the computer which to create a image.
ii. CT: Also known as computed tomography, the CT was developed by Hounsfield and Cormack to be able to produce an image of a brain slice. It is possible by having a “X-ray source” and “X-ray sensor” rotate around the head. Both used in unison, will collect data and construct and image of a brain.
12. Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): Another type of MRI, that measures the diffusion of water by comparing the position of the hydrogen atoms in water molecules.
13. PET can take much longer that fMRI. fMRI are noninvasive and does not used radiation.
i. PET: Known as position emission tomography, it is like a MRI but it can detect changes in blood flow and metabolism. It would be able to tell by the neurons having to demand for more sugar and oxygen.
ii. fMRI: Known as functional magnetic resonance imaging, can detect neuronal activity from measuring oxyhemoglobin to deoxyhemoglobin.
14.
a. Endoderm: forms the lining of internal organs.
b. Mesoderm: forms the bones and muscles.
c. Ectoderm: forms the nervous system and skin.
d. Neural plate: forms the nervous system.
e. Neurulation: where the neural plate becomes the neural tube.
f. Neural groove: where this groove in the neural plate is along the rostral to the caudal.
g. Neural fold: where the walls of the groove come together.
h. Neural tube: where the neural folds come together and fuse dorsally.
i. Neural crest: where the neural ectoderm is then pinched off and is parallel to the neural tube.
j. Somites: where mesoderm forms bulges on both side of the neural tube and forms both spine vertebrae and skeletal muscle.
15.
a. Spina Bifida: where the anterior fails to close, having the fore brain and skull degenerate.
b. Anencephaly: where the posterior fails to close.
16. You can prevent large cause of neural tube effects by having the mothers take the appropriate amount of folic acid.
17. The differentiation of the forebrain:
18. Major White Matter Systems:
i. Cortical white matter: where the axons go to and from the cerebral cortex.
ii. Corpus callosum: where the axonal bridge is between the cerebral hemispheres.
iii. Internal capsule: where it is linked to the cortex with the brainstem and/or thalamus.
19. Hypothalamus: this controls the visceral nervous system and the fight/flight mechanism.
20. Amygdala: this controls the fear, memory, and other emotions.
21. Superior colliculus: this controls eye movements.
22. Inferior colliculus: this will send information from the ear and then send that to the thalamus.
23. Cerebral aqueduct: this is connected to the third ventricle where it has CSF.
24. Substantia nigra: this controls voluntary movement.
25. Red nucleus: this controls voluntary movement.
26. Pons: this sends information back and forth to the cerebellum.
27. Cerebellum: this controls the motor skills.
28. Medullary pyramid: this is where white matter “tracts”.
29. Fourth ventricle: this is a tube that is filled with CSF and flows with the cerebral aqueduct of the mid brain.
30. Dorsal column:
31. White matter columns:
32. Intermediate Zone:
33. Ventral horn:
34. Lateral horn:
35. Dorsal horn:
36. Frontal lobe:
37. Parietal lobe:
38. Temporal lobe:
39. Occipital lobe:
40. Rhinal fissure:
41. Olfactory cortex:
42. Hippocampus:
43. Neocortex:
44. Primary motor cortex:
45. Somatosensory cortex:
46. Visual cortex:
47. Auditory cortex:
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53. The five tastes:
i. Sour: located on the sides of the tongue closer to the tip.
ii. Salty: located on the sides of the tongue closer to the back.
iii. Sweet: located on the tip of the tongue.
iv. Bitter: located on the back of the tongue.
v. Umami: located in the middle of the tongue.
54. We lick ice-cream cones because we use the tip of our tongue which detects the sweetness of foods.
55. The different shapes of the papillae are the ridges (foliate), pimples (vallate), and mushroom (fungiform).
56. The taste bud is attached to the papilla where it can contain 50 to 150 taste receptors.
57. The connectivity of taste cells happens when a synapse along with the gustatory afferent axons at the basal end of the taste bud send both electrical and chemical synapses onto the basal cells.
58. A receptor potential leads to a neurotransmitter release by the taste cells having a chemical reaction activating the taste receptor cell engaging its potential. The voltage-gated Na+ and voltage-gated Ca2+ channels are then opened to either release serotonin or ATP.
59. Transduction mechanisms for:
i. Salty: it may pass directly through ion channels.
ii. Sour: it may either pass directly through ion channels and/or bind to and block ion channels.
60. The pathway for bitter/sweet/umami: their receptors use identical second messenger pathway when carrying their signals to their distinctive afferent axons. Tastants bind directly to G-protein-coupled membrane receptors, which activate phospholipase C, which increases the synthesis of IP3. IP3 triggers the release of Ca^2+ from internal storage sites, and Ca^2+ opens a taste-specific ion channel, leading to depolarization and transmitter release. The main transmitter is ATP, which released from the taste cells by diffusing through ATP-permeable channels
61. Central taste pathway:
i. Cranial nerves synapse on gustatory nucleus
62. When you lesion the:
i. VPM/gustatory you would lose the perception of taste.
ii. Hypothalamus/amygdala you would either gain lots of weight or not be interested in food.
63. The population coding for taste is where large numbers broadly tuned neurons are used to identify the properties of a certain stimulus.
64.
a. A pheromone is a sense of communication where chemicals are released to tell of reproduction manners and to mark territories.
b. The pheromone in animals are stronger than in humans. In animals it can signal territorial boundaries, recognizing individuals, and to signal either hostility or compliance. In humans, for females it synchronizes menstrual cycles.
65. The role of
a. Olfactory epithelium: is to smell.
b. Mucus: helps protect the brain from viruses.
66. When an odorant is bind it activates Golf, opens cAMP-gated cation channel, have an influx of both sodium and calcium opening the calcium channel and activating chlorine.
67. Adaptation is what makes us stop smelling a new smell.
68.
69.
70.
a.
b.
71. Olfactory maps show how neurons are activated by certain aromas.
72.
a. Light: is the electromagnetic radiation that we can see.
b. Wavelength: is the distance between peaks.
c. Frequency: the number of waves per second.
d. Amplitude: the difference between a wave trough and peak.
e. Reflection: is the light rays bouncing off surfaces.
f. Absorption: is the transfer of light into a surface.
g. Refraction: is the bending od the light ray going into different medium of surfaces.
h. Optic Disk: where the blood vessels enter the eye.
i. Macula: where there is central vision in the retina with a yellow hue.
j. Extraocular Muscles:
73.
a. Zonule Fibers: type of fibers that are attached to the ciliary muscle.
b. Iris: what gives the eye color.
c. Lens: a transparent material where it is located behind the iris.
d. Cornea: is the glassy transparent material on the surface of the eye.
e. Aqueous Humor: is a watery fluid that feeds the cornea.
f. Ciliary Muscle: where it is formed, creating a ring inside the eye.
g. Vitreous Humor: fluid that helps the eye stay spherical.
h. Sclera: is the white of the eyes.
i. Optic Nerve: axons from the retina.
j. Fovea: a dark spot that is 2mm in diameter.
k. Retina: where photoreceptors convert light energy to neural activity.
74. When light enters the eye the cornea can refract and the lens can change shape to get a clear and more desirable picture that is being portrayed.
75.
a. Emmetropia: where the eye pays attention on parallel light rays into the retina.
b. Hyperopia: basically farsightedness. Where the eye too short and can see far away but near objects are then focused behind the retina.
c. Myopia: basically nearsightedness. Where the eyeball is too long, and the image goes in front of retina.
d. Astigmatism: where the curvature is not the usual.
e. Presbyopia: where the lens are very “old”, having it being hard.
f. Radial Keratotomy: where the central cornea has to be relaxed by an incision on the side of the cornea.
g. PRK: where a laser is used to reshape the outer surface of the cornea.
h. LASIK: where a laser is used to make a thin flap on the outer cornea to reshape it later on the inside.
76.
a. Strabismus: is the lack of coordination of the eyes.
b. Esotropia: where the eye will cross each other.
c. Exotropia: where the eyes will stare away from each other.
d. Cataracts: when the lens are clouded.
e. Glaucoma: where there is pressure on the optic nerve and can cause blindness.
f. Detached Retina: where there Is the shrinkage of the vitreous humor that causes the retina to be pulled away from the eye wall.
g. Retinitis Pigmentosa: where there is degeneration of photoreceptors.
h. Macular Degeneration: where there is a loss of vision overall and is hard to do daily function of the eyes.
77. The path of the light when it travels through the layers of the retina is photoreceptors – bipolar cells – ganglion cells.
78. The pathway of information flowing through retinal cells is photoreceptors – bipolar cells – ganglion cells.
79.
a. Horizontal cells: they receive information from the photoreceptors and then project it to other photoreceptors and other bipolar cells.
b. Amacrine cells: they receive information from the bipolar cells and then project it to other ganglion cells, amacrine and other bipolar cells.
c. Pigmentated Epithelium: where it absorbs any light.
80. Tapetum lucidum is a reflective layer that many nocturnal animals have. Light bounces back toward the retina.
81.
i. Rods: they are very long and cylindrical.
ii. Cones: they are very short and are tapered.
82.
i. Central retina: has only cones. Has the highest visual acuity.
ii. Peripheral retina: has less cones than central retina. Has a lower sight as it has poor color discrimination.
83. Dark current is where the outer segments are depolarized in the dark.
84. The phototransduction pathway in light is where opsin acts as receptor and retinal acts as ligand. Then light bleaches rhodopsin by conformational adjustment. Then it activates Gtransducin and activates phosphodiesterase and breakdown cGMP, closing a Na+ channel.
85. The Young-Helmholtz trichromacy theory is that the brain is assigned colors that are based on a relative display of the three cone types. When all types of cones are evenly active it is seen as white.
86. The factors that contribute to dark adaptation are the enlargement of the pupils, restoration of unbleached rhodopsin, and the change of functional circuitry.
87. Pirates wore eye patches over one eye to help them see in the dark.
88. Light adaptation is the reverse of the change in retina that was associated with dark adaptation.
89. You would see the color because the photoreceptor would be bleached and adapt to the cone.
90. Receptive field is any area of the retina where the light is changed by a neuron’s rate of firing. They can change shape and stimulus.
91. ON bipolar cells are are turned on by light and OFF bipolar cells are turned off by light. Slide 40
92.
a. Center-surround receptive fields are when light can enter a depolarized bipolar cell and becomes opposite with light surrounded it.
b.
93.
94.
95.