Aging Out of Foster Care and Self-Efficacy: Literature Review
Kylie Palmer
University of Mary Hardin-Baylor
PSYC 4316-01: Experimental Psychology
Professor: Aaron R. Baggett, Ph.D.
Aging out of Foster Care and Self Efficacy
Growing up in a good home with a stable family is something all individuals want. Being loved by biological parents and enjoying the years experienced with them and other siblings establishes a firm foundation in individuals. Those in this situation have a support system, people who will help take care of, provide for, and nurture them. Unfortunately, it does not work out this way for everyone. Of course, there are individuals with the “perfect” family unit. However, the foster care system is the other end of this extreme. Children are separated from their families and passed around to other families with the hopes of having them stick together and provide love, protection, encouragement, and support. If it were a perfect world, it might work out that way, but in a lot of cases, children and adolescents bounce around from home to home encountering many different families with no guarantee that they will be treated right. Luckily, many foster care children will end up adopted by a family. As for the others—they age out.
Aging out of foster care creates a hardship on the individuals transitioning to independence. There are more negative outcomes that could potentially occur to individuals aging out of the foster care system, and despite support services required to be implemented by the government, not all emancipated individuals will receive them. Individuals leaving the foster care system and transitioning into independence are more likely to experience homelessness, participate in risky activities, experience mental health issues, difficulty furthering their education and finding work, and a lack of self-efficacy.
Review of the Literature
Overview of The U.S. Foster Care System
The U.S. Foster Care System was started with the intention of keeping children safe from abusive or neglecting families. Today it has the same goal. Many children are taken from these homes and assigned to live with a relative or to enter a foster home, group home, trial homes or other arranged systems of living. According to Foster Care Statistics 2016, published by Child Welfare Information Gateway in 2017, there “were an estimated 437, 465 children in foster care” as of September 30, 2016 (p. 2). This accounts for about 0.5% of the children in the United States. Of these children, “4 percent had a goal of emancipation” (p. 4). This means 4 percent of the children or adolescents in foster care are put at risk for the negative effects of aging out of the foster care system.
Aging out
Aging out of the foster care system occurs when youth between the ages of 18 and 21 gain adult responsibility and live independently. The number of youth exiting the system estimates to be about 25,000 per year (Thompson et al., 2018, p. 1). These youths are ultimately on their own without “financial, medical or social support tools” (Scannapieco, 2016, p. 1). There are services provided in the foster care system that will try to provide independent living arrangements for them; however, on occasion there are individuals who do not want this sort of help or do not get access to it.
Independent Living Services Provided
Independent living services are implemented in attempt to reduce the difficulty youths will face when aging out of the foster care system and transitioning to independent living. The United States legally requires that all states develop and implement independent living services for youth in their state for youth ages 16 and over, but they are not limited to providing these services to youth of younger ages (Thompson et al., 2018, p. 18). Under the John H. Chafee Foster Care Independence Act of 1999, extra funding was provided for states to implement more services to youth aging out and those who have already aged out. “These funds [are to] be used for education, vocational and employment training,” according to Hill in 2009. States are legally required under this act to use some of the funds granted for the specific purpose of independent living services (Hill, 2009, p. 11). However, some youth aging out or who have aged out experience a lack of independent living services being provided.
In a study conducted by Thompson, Wojciak, and Cooley in 2018, 4143 youth along with 2942 caregivers (parents and caseworkers) were interviewed and asked to describe the various independent living services provided for youth in care and previously in care, which services were actually provided, and what other services may have an impact on the outcome of youth aging out of foster care (p. 18). The results of this study indicated that youth formerly in foster care (18-21) did not obtain the main four materials for independent living such as, a social security card, birth certificate, form of identification, and a driver’s license, with the most indicating that they had not had a driver’s license. Youth formerly in foster care also report a lack of independent living resources provided to them with the least resources including how to identify an employer, interviewing skills, vocational counseling, GED preparation, down payment assistance, and how to find an apartment (p. 23). For youth currently in care (age 13-17), ten skills were expected for youth prepared for independent living: how to interview, apply for college, open a checking account, rent an apartment, shop for meals, use public transportation, get income assistance, help from the community, family planning services, and obtaining medical care. Of these skills, 26% said they had none, and only 54% had five or more (p. 20). Concerning resources to enhance independent living skills, these youths reported a lack in caregivers and caseworkers suggesting independent living classes and encouragement to take a driver’s education course (p. 24). Ultimately, there is a large gap in independent living services being implemented and youth in foster care receiving services. This results in youth being put at a disadvantage in comparison to the general population of the same age. In addition, they feel unprepared to live on their own and to be self-sufficient.
Risk Factors of the Aging Out Population
Homelessness
With a lack of preparation, youth aging out of foster care are put at a higher risk for homelessness. Unfortunately, in addition to the lack of independent living services, those that are being provided do not provide practice nor do they provide long-term living situations, according to Olsson, Scherer, and Cohen (2017). Baugh states, “Approximately 14% of males, and 10% of females report being homeless at least once since their discharge from foster care services” (2008). These statistics show that foster care youth are struggling with factors related to the transition to independent living, but could also struggle with personal factors that affect the motivation to find a stable living situation as well. In another study conducted by Dworsky, Napalitano, and Courtney (2013), rates of homelessness and factors that had the greatest impact on the likelihood of youth aging out to experience homelessness were assessed in youth who aged out of the foster care system up to the age of 26 (p. S318). Results of this study showed that “36% of the 624 Midwest Study participants whose outcomes [they] could observe reported at least 1 episode of homelessness by age 26 years” (p. S320). In addition, an estimated 1/3 experiencing homelessness, the factors found that most influenced this were: “running away while in foster care, greater placement instability, being male, a history of being physically abused, engaging in more delinquent behaviors, and having symptoms of a mental health disorder” (p. S319). Shah et al. (2016) adds to these factors in a follow up study similar to that of Dworsky et al. based on individual data in a longitudinal database and found that “youth who had experienced four or more school moves in the year of exit or two prior years” had a greater chance of experiencing homelessness as well (p. 39). Surprisingly, these factors appear to be unrelated employment factors and appear to have some intrinsic based connections. It is an important stage in a foster youth’s life when developing into an adult and living independently, and without the preparation or drive on top of these factors, homelessness could be the living situation for life.
Unemployment
Not many studies have been conducted on youth who have aged out of foster care in relation to their employment with the intention of finding factors that relate to their employment levels. However, the studies that do exist reflect poor outcomes for these youths. It is probable that youth who have aged out are more likely to experience unemployment or when employed, to be making wages at or below federal poverty level. Hook and Courtney (2011) discuss this further in their study that looks at employment outcomes of foster youth based on human, personal, and social capital. According to their study, only half of the 732 youth involved were employed by the age of 24 with another 30% seeking employment and 16% considered not employed due to incarceration (p. 1860). Based on wages the employed individuals earn, “22% would be classified as poor” with men earning slightly more than women (p. 1860). This study enhances the problem associated with independent living services failing to help their youth enter the job market and provide for themselves. It also reveals that other personal factors influence the likelihood of employment versus unemployment.
In the same study factors associated with the likelihood of employment are educational attainment. According to Hook and Courtney (2011), “Youth with a high school diploma or GED are twice as likely to be employed as youth who did not complete high school” (p. 1862). While this may seem like no surprise, the education level attained by youth in foster care remains low. Of the individuals studied, 20% did not have a high school diploma, 46% did, only 28% attended some college, the remaining 6% had an Associate’s degree (p. 1862). Because education attainment is strongly correlated with likelihood of employment and wages, it is no surprise that only about half of the youth who aged out were employed. Property crime is another related factor which decreases the likelihood of employment by 25% (p. 1862). For the last of human capital factors, negligence by a caretaker increased the likelihood of employment by 40% based on the reasoning that those not neglected have greater social support to rely on for income (p. 1862). Concerning social factors related to employment levels, youth who did not live in family foster care, perhaps in a group home or institution, when transitioning to independent living were less likely to be employed. Placement instability is another factor that increases the likelihood of unemployment. For “each placement… 0.7% lower wages” are earned by the youth who aged out possibly indicating intrinsic problems or lack of social connections (pp. 1862-1863). It is frightening that the youth who age out of foster care experience the hardship of not being able to provide for themselves due to the lack of resources, social connections, and education received prior to exiting the system.
Risky behaviors
With the combination of low education levels, low employment, financial instability, and an unlikely chance of a stable living condition, you who age out of foster care are highly likely to engage is in risky behaviors. In a study conducted by Stott (2012), placement instability, substance use and abuse, and risky sexual behavior were examined in relation to youth who aged out of foster care. Youth who experience greater placement instability are correlated with low education, low self-esteem, drug use, arrests and incarceration, mental health care needs, and social network disruption (p. 23). This instability has contributed to aged out youth’s willingness to form relationships because of having to move again contributing further to a lack of social support and guidance to stay on a less risky path. Instability in the lives of these youths initiate the development of coping skills (p. 64). These coping skills take many forms, and on top of the anxiety created by placement instability, risky behavior such as substance abuse and/or risky sex may be ways that youth seek to rid themselves of their problems.
Adolescents in the general population are most likely to experiment with risky behavior and engage in substance use. Unfortunately, for many this turns into substance abuse. The likelihood of foster care youth engaging in similar activity is higher than that of youth in the general population. It is made apparent by the 2002 and 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health that “34% of youth who had ever been in foster care had used illicit drugs in the past year,” with these rates being 12% higher than that of the general populations use. It is no surprise that youth aging out of foster care also have higher rates of substance abuse and diagnosable substance abuse disorders (Stott, 2012, pp. 64-65). Even an estimate of 24% youth out of foster care in Nevada reported needing to support themselves by selling drugs since they transitioned out of foster care (65). Risky behavior in the form of substances use and abuse seems to be much higher in cases of low educational attainment among all populations, putting foster care youth at even greater risk due to their already low likelihood of attaining high educational levels as previously stated in effecting almost all aspects of the youths’ life.
Risky sexual behavior is most commonly displayed by the number of women who are pregnant in, as they age out, or right after transitioning out of foster care. Females who have aged out are twice as likely to engage in risky behavior than all other populations (Stott, 2012, p. 66). In many states, approximately 1/3 of the females who aged out in recent years had either already been pregnant, were currently pregnant, or experienced pregnancy following the transition to independence. Factors that influence youth engagement in risky sexual behavior include sexual abuse, substance use, low self-esteem, a decreased internal locus of control, and low social capital (p. 67). Youth aging out are extremely likely to be affected by all of these factors over their peers in the general population.
Learned helplessness
As stated in previous studies, it is very common for youth aging out to feel not in control of their situations. Being taken from home to home or after aging out, abuse, not having a solid education, and not having a stable living condition or job contributes to this as well. Due to the lack of control, learned helplessness is a common condition that youth in the foster care system experience. In a study conducted by Gomes et al. (2015), learned helplessness and the factors that contribute to this condition are explored in detail among youth who have aged out. The uncontrollable atmosphere youth in foster care live in on a daily basis causes them to experience a lack of motivation in all aspects of their lives (p. 509). Some competencies used to measure learned helplessness were “housing stability, employment/income, education, social relationships, physical heath, and mental health” (p. 509). Of the 200 foster care youth sampled, 59% reported experiencing learned helplessness and a lack of motivation and preparation to do well in the transition to independence. Of those who listed a cause of this condition, 29.5% attributed it to the child welfare system’s lack of initiative in preparing the youth and making them aware of what life will be like on their own (p. 512). The lack of control and motivation experienced by youth aging out contributes to every other factor of their life and increases the likelihood that they will experience the risks of unemployment, homelessness, and risky behavior as previously stated.
Decision-Making Skills (Olsson, Scherer, Cohen)
In a world of uncontrollable events, low education level, low employment levels, risky behavior, and a lack of motivation, decision making for youth who have aged out is an insurmountable obstacle. According to Olson et al. (2017), youth faced extreme challenges as they transitioned out of foster care (p. 84). Nothing was easy for them, especially when there was no social support or anyone to guide them in the right direction. It was reported that the previous foster care youth had to make choices that were a “matter of life and death,” and did not have adequate time to make decisions that had a bug impact on their lives (p. 84). While these youths faced life depending decisions, youth of the same age who were not in foster care dealt with decisions of lesser degree concerning ‘“voting,” applying to and attending college,” “getting a credit card,” and “buying a car”’ (p. 84). Many of them also gave credit to parents and caregivers for aiding in learning decision making skills. Those of which majority of youth in foster care do not have access to or good relationships with.
Psychological and mental state
Due to the main purpose of foster care—getting children away from abusive or negligent living situations, many youths enter the foster care system with traumatic experiences that can contribute to mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and PTSD. Emotional and behavior disorders are the most common among youth in foster care according to Pecora et al. (2009, p. 3). Foster care youth are at more risk for negative mental health and physical health outcomes after leaving the foster care system (Baugh, 2008). It is reasoned that there is not enough access provided to youth in foster care to get in contact with doctors or mental health physicians, and many times the youth on their own to cope with the mental health issues they experience. Lack of social support may also contribute to the outcome of mental health in these youth. With no one to talk to or to listen to their problems, it is likely there is no healthy way of handling their depression, anxiety, or PTSD. It is also likely that when aging out of foster care these mental health states become worse. Especially with the prevalence of mental health disorders arising in adolescent and young adult years, previous foster youth are faced with more difficulty as they navigate to find their way on their own.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is defined as “an expectancy or belief about how competently one will be able to enact a behavior in a particular situation” (Friedman & Schustack 2012, p. 240). In other words, related to motivation, if an individual does not believe he or she can do something and successfully perform, he or she will not have much motive to take part in it. This theory of self-efficacy proposed by Albert Bandura is similar to the idea of self-motivation or internal locus of control. According to Bandura, self-efficacy results from “four types of information: (1) our experiences trying to perform the target behavior or similar behavior… (2) watching other perform that or similar behaviors… (3) verbal persuasion… (4) how we feel about the behavior” (p. 205). Ultimately, the personal experiences are the main information considered in determining an individual’s level of self-efficacy, and self-efficacy is an internal factor that impacts every area of life. It can be situational and change depending on the individual’s belief of their ability in the particular situation. For example, youth who have aged out of foster care may have self-efficacy about their ability to find food for them to live off of, but may not have self-efficacy about their ability to earn the money by working in order to provide food for themselves.
How it is measured
Self-efficacy cane be measured based on the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) created by Schwarzer & Jerusalem in 1995. This particular scale was created to assess self-efficacy in individuals after encountering very stressful situations. Ultimately, it measures self-efficacy and an individual’s positive optimism of their ability to perform and cope with what he or she has endured and move forward. An individual’s self-efficacy strongly relates to his or her “goal-setting, effort investment, persistence in the face of barriers, and recovery from setbacks” (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). The GSE consists of 10 statements in which the individual rates from one to four with one being “not at all true,” two being “hardly true,” three being moderately true,” and four being “exactly true” (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). The statements concern solving problems, how easy or difficult it is or the individual to create and accomplish goals, deal with unexpected events, putting effort toward finding solutions to problems, and handling tough situations (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). This scale is a good indicator of what the quality of life is like for a particular individual, and has a strong correlation with positive responses being consistent with favorable outcomes such as optimism and overall satisfaction, and negative responses being consistent with mental health issues and stress. This particular scale is available in thirty-three languages and used internationally. It can also be accommodated to certain situations, for example, there is a general self-efficacy scale created for cardiac patients to predict their recovery after surgery. There are also other general self-efficacy scales created for teacher, parents, and children concerning education. It is a widely accepted form of measurement for predicting self-efficacy and proves to be a resourceful tool.
Promoting Self-Efficacy in Youth Aging Out
It is safe to assume youth aging out of foster care experience low levels of self-efficacy. Placement stability is a strong contributor to foster care youths’ level of self-efficacy. This is reiterated by Stott (2012) who discusses the loss of control foster care youth experience. He states, “many youths who are frequently moved become apathetic about their futures… [and] engage in self-protection mechanisms including a lack of future planning” (p. 64). Similarly, this underdevelopment of self-efficacy affects motivation in school and motivation to resist risky behavior (p. 64). In order to develop self-efficacy in these youths, necessary actions and steps should be established in addition to the independent living services already legally required to be put in place.
It was found in a previous study that only information about furthering education and getting a job were discussed; nothing was put to practice. In order for youth to gain development of their self-efficacy, this information should be put in practice. Caseworkers and caregivers should provide the youth with the opportunities to sit down and prepare a resume, conduct a job search, and practice interviewing. For education, the youth could be taken through the steps of applying and studying for the GED, applying to college, and discuss how best to conduct themselves and what expectations there are for them as they enter these new stages.
As far as independent living services, caseworkers and caregivers should take the time to sit with the youth and discuss what their life will be like once they have aged out of foster care. It should be laid out plainly that they will need to find a job and a place to live. In instances where the foster care system is not able to provide a long-term living situation, they should help the youths to conduct a search for housing, walk them through the process of applying for a loan or applying for an apartment, teach them how to manage finances and pay their bills on time.
It is required that a “personalized transition plan must be developed with the youth during the 90-day-period prior to the youth’s emancipation,” under the Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act (2002) as stated by Mitchell (2012, p. 296). However, it is reported that 60% of the youth “were either not aware of their transition plan or did not know if they played a role in the development of [it]” (p. 296). The transition plan should be taken seriously and actually implemented for each individual. It would also be impactful to practice goal setting with youth transitioning out of foster care and heavily involve them in their transition plan. Of course, the goals should be set by the youth themselves and should be things they realistically believe they can accomplish. By doing so, self-efficacy will be determined and developed slightly prior to moving toward independence. Giving the youth a say in what will come ahead for them will promote their self-confidence, control over the situation, and ultimately, their self-efficacy levels. As these are promoted, the negative outcomes that foster care youth are likely to experience could be reduced.
Conclusions
With the lack of research on youth aging out of foster care and their self-efficacy levels specifically, my group and I propose to conduct a study to do so. We plan to sample approximately 100 individuals between the ages of 18 and 21 who have aged out of the foster care system or are in their transition out of it. We also plan to sample approximately 100 individuals of the same demographics who exited the system between the ages of 8 and 11. For this study, individuals will be administered and asked to complete the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE). We hypothesize to find that teens who aged out of foster care will have lower levels of self-efficacy based on the General Self-Efficacy Scale than those who exited the foster care system at an earlier age.
References
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