1. What are the primary lymphatic structures and their function? (4 points)
Primary lymphatic structures include red bone marrow and the thymus. Red bone marrow makes all of the red blood cells and platelets and also destroys red blood cells when necessary. The thymus's function is to mature an immune cell called T cells or T-lymphocytes.
2. What are some components of lymph and where does it originate? What is exudate? (4 points)
Components of lymph are: red bone marrow (in the spongy bone and in flat bones), thymus [depending on the age, superior mediastinumê (adults or children) or anterior mediastinum ê possible in children)], lymph nodes (they are along lymphatic vessels – such as cervical, supraclavicular, axillary, mediastinal, supratrochlear, mesenteric, inguinal, femoral, popliteal), spleen (located under the ribcage in left upper quadrant), tonsils (in the back of the mouth on both sides of oral cavity), lymphatic nodules (they are all over the body, located in organs and the wall of the appendix), and mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (the gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tract).
Exudate is fluid that leaks out and enters the interstitial space during inflammation delivering things such as cells and substances needed to get rid of any bad agent or to help the healing process.
3. Name two secondary lymph structures and some cells found in each. (4 points)
The lymph nodes cortex has proliferating B-cells and some macrophages whereas the inner medulla has B-cells, T-cells, and macrophages.
The spleen has white pulp that contains T-cells, B-cells and macrophages whereas it's red pulp has erythrocytes, platelets, macrophages, and B-cells.
4. Lymph nodes may be removed as part of a mastectomy. What complication/condition might this cause? Why? (4 points)
Having lymph nodes removed could cause severe edema. The reason behind this is because the removal of lymph nodes affect how lymph fluid drains.
5. The spleen filters blood, and the lymph nodes filter lymphatic fluid. (2 points)
6. Following a splenectomy, a person is more susceptible to what type of infection? (2 point)
After a splenectomy, the body's lymphatic organs start to take control of everything that the spleen would normally be tasked to do, however the person becomes more susceptible to contracting serious or life-threatening infections.
Immune System
7. Discuss at least 3 differences between the Innate and the Adaptive Immune Systems. (3 points)
One major difference is that innate immunity is defenses you are born and do not need exposure with it whereas adaptive immunity is "learned" from what we are exposed to. Another difference is that innate immunity immediately responds to antigens whereas adaptive immunity has a delayed response.
STILL NEED A 3RD
8. Fill in the blank. Use these words: Neutrophil, macrophage, eosinophil, basophil, mast cell, NK cell, Helper T-cell, Cytotoxic T-cell, B-Cell, Plasma Cell, Interleukins, Interferons. Use each only once. (12 points)
A. NK Cells Does not require activation, destroys abnormal cells without specificity, involved in Immune Surveillance
B. Macrophages Phagocytizes cells and acts as Antigen Presenting Cell
C. Mast Cells Secretes histamine and heparin, found in connective tissues
D. Neutrophils Considered a "First Responder", increased in acute bacterial infections
E. Interferon A cytokine important in impeding viral infections
F. Plasma Cell Produces antibodies
G. Eosinophils Increased in parasitic infections and allergies
H. B-Cells Usually requires a Helper T-cell for activation, becomes a plasma cell
I. Cytotoxic T-Cell Destroys cells showing a specific antigen
J. Helper T-Cell Also known as a CD4 cell
K. Basophils Circulates in the blood, secretes histamine
L. Interleukins Secreted by T-helper cells, stimulates T and B cell development
9. Discuss the processes and cells involved in the inflammatory response. (5 points)
First, there has to be a "trigger" to set off the inflammatory response, whether it is bacteria, a cut, and so on.
10. What is RICE? Name two specific ways it is effective in treating inflammation in an extremity such as might result from a joint sprain. (6 points)
RICE stands for Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation.
11. What is a pyrogen? What produces it? What effect does it have on the hypothalamus? (3 points)
Pyrogen is a molecule/substance that creates a fever. Pyrogen increases the temperature in the hypothalamus and triggers the blood vessels in the dermis to vasoconstrict to decrease heat loss.
12. Should a mild fever be treated? Why or why not? (2 points)
No. A mild fever can actually be beneficial because it stops the replication of bacteria and viruses, promotes interferon activity, increases activity of adaptive immunity, and accelerates tissue repair. The only time you should treat a fever is if it becomes very high or if the fever starts to become very negatively impactful on the person's comfort.
13. What is an antigen? Give an example. (2 points)
In simple terms, an antigen is a protein/large polysaccharide that binds to a T-cell or antibody that the body tries to fight. An example of an antigen would be bacterial toxins.
14. Fill in the blank (8 points)
A. T-cells have unique receptor called TCRs which bind one specific antigen.
B. Helper T-cells have a TCR plus CD4 proteins. Helper T-cells recognize Major Histocompatibility Complex Type II which is present on antigen-presenting cells.
C. Cytotoxic T-cells have a TCR plus CD8 proteins. Cytotoxic T-cells recognize Major Histocompatibility Complex Type I which is present on all nucleated cells.
15. List 3 cells that T-helper cells through secretions of cytokines help to activate. (3 points)
Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte,
16. The presence of an antigen will initiate activation of Helper T-cells, Cytotoxic T-cells, and B-cells. Thus, components of cell-mediated and humoral immunity are made. Choose one of these cell types and explain the process of its activation. (10 points)
I chose Helper T-Lymphocytes/T-cells. For activation, there is the first signal which is where the MHC class II molecule of an antigen-presenting cell and the TCR of a helper T-lymphocyte bind. The ant
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17. Activation produces a clone of cells called memory cells. Why are they important? (4 points)
Memory cells are important because they are able to respond to an antigen no matter how long it has been since the exposure that caused its production.
18. What are the five major classes of antibodies? (5 points)
The five major classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE.
19. Briefly describe two ways antibodies rid us of pathogens. (4 points)
One way antibodies get rid of pathogens is that it physically covers the antigen preventing it from actually starting an infection, called neutralization. Another way is that an antibody can cross-link with dissolvable antigens to form an antigen-antibody complex. They end up becoming incapable of being dissolved and get deposited in solid form that eventually gets eaten and eliminated by cells like macrophages, and this is called precipitation.
20. What types of components do vaccinations contain? (3 points)
Vaccine's contain a weak or dead either microorganism or something that is bioengineered to develop the memory of B-lymphocytes safely. The microorganism has little-to-no ability to cause the infection that vaccine is made to fight.
21. A friend is allergic to cats. Within minutes of exposure, she experiences nasal congestion, watery eyes, hives, and difficulty breathing. She asks you what causes this. Explain to her in simple terms the process of an acute allergic (hypersensitivity) reaction. (10 points)
First, you were exposed to the cat which is an allergy to your body. When you came into contact with the cat, you most likely breathed in particles of cat dander through your nose and/or mouth causing the difficulty breathing, nasal congestion and watery eyes. The hives came from the cat dander being on your skin, which can easily happen if the cat has brushed up against you or you have petted the cat. It is all because of something called a histamine. A histamine is something that is released in response to allergic reactions (which is why we get the watery eyes, runny nose, etc.). The best way to treat the symptoms is to take an anti-histamine medication, such as Benadryl, which helps to take away the symptoms by blocking histamines (the response to the cat dander).