Psychosocial Sources of Stress
Stressors are external elements of the organism that are characterised by environmental events that disturb homeostasis and cause a state of unequal equilibrium, threatening the organism either emotionally or physiologically (Bernard & Krupat, 1994).
Being a single mother is an example of a daily hassle stressor. Caring for children, managing the payments of bills and balancing a busy lifestyle are examples of the stress she has to deal with daily. The worrying and having lots to think about can cause stress and anxiety and to load this stress onto their family members and friends which may deteriorate their relationships and cause further stress with losing social support (Morris & Maisto, 2005).
Divorce is a major life event stressor. Divorce involves a big change which is very stressful, a divorcee may become anxious and develop self-esteem issues from losing the social support from their previous partner, which can then result in feeling like a failure and struggling to cope with their stress. Worrying about finances is another big issue that causes further stress with having to cope with a single salary rather than two (Brannon & Feist, 2010).
Another social relationship stressor is family conflict. When enduring a fallout with family, individuals need to cope with the lack of social and sometimes financial support that they would otherwise be getting from the family. Feelings of isolation and being alone arise with the abandoning of family support, as do conflicting feelings with the conscience as they know that they should be having a good relationship with family members, but something is standing in the way (Kunert, 2009).
An example of an environmental stressor is natural disasters and more specifically; earthquakes, classed as a cataclysmic event. An earthquake has impacts on a large proximity of people, causing many deaths and injuries as well as generating PTSD in many survivors from the ‘life altering’ experience. The event of an earthquake is often unpredicted and a shock to many, some lose their homes, families and loved ones. Trying to turn their life back to how it was before the event is often very difficult and sometimes even impossible with the major trauma and grief they have (Brannon & Feist, 2010)
Another environmental stressor that impacts millions of people is overcrowding. In large, populated cities there is struggle for space. Stress is very common among people who live in these conditions as they have worries of catching illnesses, concerns of having limited space and freedom and less access to resources. Behaviour is affected with the large population density and individuals may begin to feel impulses of being territorial of ‘their’ space (Brannon & Feist, 2010)
An occupational source of stress that is becoming a common stressor within the 21st century is the rapid technological change, especially in workplaces. Pressure is exerted onto many employees to understand new forms of technology and software to keep with the changing world. Feeling overwhelmed and unable to keep up is a common feeling amount many of these people. Feelings of anxiety and a drop-in confidence from the overwhelming changes leads to furthering of stress (Bernard & Krupat, 1994).
Another work-related stressor is unemployment. Having no financial security and stressing about money and how to pay the bills is a significant stressor. Conflicts within relationships can arise as one partner may be handling everything financially. Being unemployed may cause the individual to feel worthless and as if they have no purpose, as well as creating feelings of not being good enough which can then lead to depression and create further stress (Brannon & Feist, 2010).
Personality types are another stressor, in particular is personality Type A, who are more prone to stress. Type A personality types hold high expectations of themselves that are often unrealistic (Schafer, 2000). A high sense of time urgency is common among type A personalities and they always are rushing to get things done and often don’t relax. When they don’t reach their unrealistic expectations of themselves, they are disappointed and feel ashamed which isn’t healthy for the mind or body.
Physiological Systems and Physical Reactions
The nervous system and the endocrine system are both important physiological systems that work to help protect the body in a response to stress. They work alongside each other in their own unique ways to enhance the individual’s survival chances (Brannon & Fiest, 2010).
The nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves in a body, it controls messages that are sent throughout the body. The nervous system is branched into several divisions, one being the autonomic nervous system that itself is subdivided into two further sections; the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system, which both play important roles in the bodies response to stress (Brannon & Fiest, 2010).
During a stressful event or situation, the sympathetic nervous system will arouse the bodies resources necessary for survival and reacting to the stress-inducing stimuli. This triggers ‘fight or flight’ with the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine. As a response to these neurotransmitters, gastrointestinal activity and other not needed activities decrease to reserve energy and blood for an increase in respiration, stimulation of sweat glands, dilation of pupils and rate and strength of cardiac contraction. The sympathetic nervous system does this so the needed functions such as the brain, heart and muscles all can deal with the threat (Seaward, 2006).
Diversely, the other division of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, works to foster relaxation and calm the body under normal, non-stress-inducing situations. Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that is released from the parasympathetic nervous system to return the body back into a state of homeostasis by slowing heart rate, increasing digestion rates and to constrict the pupil back to normal. The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system work in contrast of one another on the same target organs but at different times as they both can’t be dominating power simultaneously. The nervous system uses neurones to send and deliver the messages throughout the body, this happens quickly and is short-lived and concentrated in particular areas, such as the heart for example (Seaward, 2006).
In comparison, the endocrine system sends out hormones that are slower paced but last longer with their persisting effects that target broad areas rather than smaller, specialised areas. Glands not possessing ducts, distributed throughout the body make up what is called the endocrine system, the nervous system both controls and interacts with these glands. Hormones are made and released by the endocrine system through the circuitry system and operate on target organs. The most important glands in the stress response are the pituitary, thyroid and in particular, the adrenal glands. The hormones; epinephrine, norepinephrine and cortisol are all released from the adrenal gland. The endocrine system works similar to the nervous system in its response to stress that it favours the necessary organs needed to be used to protect the body from a stressor, by increasing blood flow in organs such as muscles, and decreasing blood flow in other unneeded organs such as the gut (Seaward, 2006).
The immune system is also a system that is involved with the physiology of the human stress response with the same goal in mind as the nervous ad endocrine system; to ensure physical survival of the body (Seaward, 2006).
From the nervous, endocrine and immune systems response to stress, immediate physical reactions of the body begin. This includes a faster heartbeat, tightened muscles, quickened breathing, increased senses and, the climbing of blood pressure. These occurrences happen so that the individual has an increased chance of survival, to prepare them for ‘fight or flight.’ An individual will feel aroused and ‘alert’ when in a state of stress as their body is preparing them to be able to react to the situation in its best manner. They will also look flushed in the face with the increased blood flow as well (Brannon & Feist, 2010).
Maladaptive Responses of the Stress Response
The stress response of the human body has been helpful and life-saving in many circumstances for a long time but now in modern times, the adaptive ability of the body to respond to stress can instead be more deteriorating on the body than being helpful. An explanation of the maladaptive abilities of the human body’s stress response is explained with Hans Selye’s General Adaptive syndrome Theory (GAS).
Selye’s theory of GAS explains the physiological changes that happen whilst an individual is facing stress. They can be described as three stages; alarm reaction, resistance stage and exhaustion stage.
The first stage of alarm reaction is characterised by the bodies defense against the stressor that is present. The body is prepared for the fight or flight response through the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, activation of sweat glands and strength reaching its maximum are effects of this stage. These physical changes to the body are highly productive to the organism when they are needed for physical reaction, such as fighting or fleeing, but in modern times, these actions aren’t so useful and when the body is faced with prolonged exposure to these impulses, can cause deterioration (Brannon & Feist, 2010).
The second stage of the GAS model is the resistance stage, where the person begins to adapt to the stressor, they will appear to look normal when looking at them, but their internal functionings are acting abnormally. Prolonged stress causes for continued hormonal and neurological changes that can result in a number of threatening diseases. Peptic ulcers, hyperthyroidism and bronchial asthma can develop from continued stress (Brannon & Feist, 2010). Susceptibility to infection also becomes foreseeable as the immune system loses its strength (Morris & Maisto, 2005).
In the final stage of exhaustion the organism will begin to struggle to resist to the stress and depletion of its strength will embark. The parasympathetic nervous system’s functioning becomes low and its ability to calm the body and return to a state of homeostasis fails. The organism will become exhausted as of the ongoing impact of the stressor diminishing the body’s resources, the body will suffer breakdowns and vulnerability to illnesses become heightened and in some cases, even death (Brannon & Feist, 2010).
Allostasis strives to achieve a balance and maintain a stability of homeostasis through changes in both physiology and behavior. When the allostatic stress response gets overloaded, functions within the body begin the malfunction and physical damage can be caused (0). At its ideal functioning, the autonomic nervous system will adjust steadily to the demands of maintaining allostasis by responding to the parasympathetic and the sympathetic requests. The ability for the body to adapt will begin to cease when there is extended activation of these responses, creating allostatic load (McGrady, 2007).
Although the stress response is meant to be short-termed and responsive to a threat, in modern days it is being seen more of a threat itself. Many stressors have arisen that are dealt with daily by individuals and the body’s response to dealing with the stressor isn’t advantageous for these particular kinds, such as divorce or work responsibilities. Both physical and mental health begins to deteriorate at a faster rate with prolonged exposure to stressors with the body responding in harmful ways when chronic (Morris & Maisto, 2005).