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Question 3
The analysis of cultural relativism and ethnocentrism play a critical role in understanding human cultures. The two concepts adopt different approaches in the conception of the relationship between a variety of cultures. Cultural relativism affirms that every culture should be understood in its own context as a particular expression of a group of people. The concepts suggest that a person’s beliefs, practices, and norms should be viewed based on their own culture rather than in being analyzed in relation to other cultures Cultural relativists understand that cultures are different and that people should appreciate the uniqueness of different cultures.
On the other hand, ethnocentrism takes a different approach to the analysis of human cultures. In this concept, people view and analyze other cultures based on their own cultural affiliation. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one’s own culture as the only superior and valid worldview. In that regard, people tend to judge other cultures based on preconceptions originating from their own cultures. To some extent, a majority of people in the society tend to be ethnocentric. Ethnocentrism is largely associated with a comparative and prejudicial understanding of other people’s cultures, rather than perceiving such cultures on the basis of one’s own cultures. An ethnocentric person perceives that other people’s cultural practices should align with their own cultures for them to be regarded as valid.
Cultural relativism attracts a variety of benefits. For instance, the approach promotes cooperation in society. The concept allows cultural anthropologists to take a non-biased approach that in the analyses of other people’s cultures. By appreciating other people’s belief systems, such as anthropologists elicit cooperation among the different communities. Furthermore, cultural relativism preserves diversity in human cultures. The concepts create a society that appreciates the uniqueness diversity in cultures, which is essential in anthropology. In consequence, the preservation of diverse human cultures plays a critical role in the continuous analysis of social factors and human behaviors.
As noted, the concepts of cultural relativism and ethnocentrism are evident in the analysis of polygamy in Islam. In a cultural relativist perspective, people view the practice of polygamy as acceptable based on the Quran. On the other hand, ethnocentric people from Christian societies tend to view such a practice as unacceptable based on their belief that God ordains marriage of one man to one woman, as provided for in the bible. The diversity in perception can be attributed to the different bases of analysis.
Question 4
Halal is an Islamic concept that is used to refer to the lawful or moral acceptance of issues or objects on the society. In regards to food, Halal is a dietary standard that is acceptable among Muslim communities as prescribed by the Quran. The Quran provides criteria essential for Muslims to determine whether certain foodstuffs are acceptable or not. Such criteria are based on the nature and preparation of food. For meat to be considered Halal, there are conditions that should be met when slaughtering such animals. For instance, the Halal slaughter is a humane method of preparing animals for consumption and is largely accepted among Muslims.
There are a variety of conditions that should be followed in Halal Slaughter. As noted, the animal to be slaughtered should be acceptable in accordance with the Holy Scripture. Furthermore, the animal must be alive at the time of the slaughter. When slaughtering an animal, a sharp knife must be used. In the process, the windpipe, food-tract, and the jugular veins must be cut for the meat to be acceptable. Most importantly, a person must invoke the name of Allah when slaughtering the animal. For instance, they must say “Bismillah Allahu Akbar”, which translates to “In the Name of Allah; Allah is the greatest” when conducting the process. Halal slaughter also provides that animals must be slaughtered in a comfortable. Furthermore, the slaughtering process must be done manually. Halal slaughtering also prohibits the use of equipment used in the slaughter of pigs. Last but not least, the person conducting the process must be a Muslim and of sound mind for the meat to be Halal.
The Halal slaughtering is based on the Islamic values and the welfare of animal suffering. The process is intended to reduce animal suffering and to adhere to the Islamic values. The Quran provides for compassionate treatment of animals, which is effectively evident in the Halal slaughter. Western societies have in the past used the topic of Halal food to propagate the concept of Islamophobia. For instance, such societies associate the increased Halal food restaurants in western countries as a gradual spread of Islamic ideologies. Anti-Islamic sentiments reveal that the spread of halal food in America increases the prevalence of Islamic ideologies in the country. Certain groups relate the spread of Halal foods in American society to a sign of larger Muslim conspiracy.
Question 6
Sufism is a mystic phenomenon within Islam that is associated with the pursuit of love and knowledge through a direct connection with God. Also, the term can be defined as a practice in Islam that seeks a deeper identity – beyond an individual’s personality – that aligns with all that is in existence. Largely, the concept creates a deeper understanding and an improved way of life that exhibits spiritual and subconscious enlightenment. The concept has spread across many cultures in the world, in which it is regarded as a belief system, an experience, or a way of life characterized by enlightenment.
The Sufi phenomena have numerous characteristics. First, the Sufism attribute the qualities of love, effulgence, generosity, mercy, and immanence to God. Second, Sufism does not focus on their fear or wrath of God. Instead, the phenomena focus on creating a divine connection with God in the pursuit of love and spiritual path. Third, the practice is founded on the broad recognition that there are only one spiritual and ultimate being referred to as God. In this regard, people associate the phenomena with spiritual, physical, and emotional enlightenment, which is attributed to diverse knowledge realized by great prophets. Fourth, people who practice Sufi believe that His glory and benevolence is reflected in all beings and all objects in the universe. As a result, the practice advocates for kindness and love in the treatment of all beings – both human and animals. On that note, a majority of Sufis are a strict vegetarian, which portrays their respect and appreciation of life. Fifth, Sufis believe that to create a divine connection with God, one must achieve a feeling and state of utter sincerity and purity. In that regard, the practice advocates that people should get rid of the sheaths of impurity and ignorance in their hearts. The ultimate goal for this practice is a divine union with God.
The practice of Sufi tends to differ across cultures. As noted, there exist a variety of local forms of Sufism, which are not universally accepted. Such forms vary across cultures. Due to the diversity of cultures in Europe – especially Germany and France – Sufi movements exhibit an informal influence on the people. In countries dominated by Muslims, especially Turkey and Iran, Sufi orders in such regions have established a formal influence on the members. In certain regions of Europe, educated Sufis have adapted to Western cultures. One example is the sub-branch of Qadiri order in France. Due to the continued evolution of societies, Sufi movements have also experienced changes to their nature and organizations.
Question 8
Edward Said depicts orientalism a perception that exaggerates, emphasizes, and distorts the distinctions between Arab people and cultures in comparison to those of Europe and the United States. In this perception, Arab culture is perceived as backward, uncivilized, exotic, and in some cases, dangerous. Orientalism is defined as the West’s perception of the differences between the East and the West and how it affects social theories, literature, social descriptions, and political accounts of the Arabs, their customs, and belief systems. Orientalism can be traced to the period of European Enlightenment and it provided justification for Arab colonization. The West constructed the East as poor, primitive, and inferior, and therefore, needing western interventions from the West.
Orient perceptions and stereotypes have evolved since the 20th century. The perception has changed from primitive and backward societies to violent and revolutionary societies in the 21st century. The recent revolts and protests in the Middle East have been perceived as democratic movements against dictatorial and oppressive regimes, which necessitates military interventions from the West. Furthermore, the prevalence of such social constructions have shifted largely from European countries to the U.S. Since the 9/11 attack on American Twin Tower, the perception, both in media and literature, regarding Arabs have shifted tremendously. Currently, such people are viewed as naturally prone to violence, anger, and extreme behaviors associated with terrorism. These perceptions take an ethnocentric approach to understand Arab cultural norms and belief systems.
Orientalist discourse in the West affects Muslim societies, people, and their culture. A majority of challenges Muslims face can be attributed to such ethnocentric approach in understanding Muslims. Recently, President Donald Trump recently adopted strategies intended to minimize the number of immigrants from Arab Countries. Such actions can be attributed to the perceptions that Muslims tend to be violent and impulsive, behaviors that are associated with terrorists. Furthermore, U.S. military interventions in Arab countries relate to the recent wave of protests and revolts, which have been perceived as needing western interventions. Largely, the discrimination of people from Arab countries is also attributed to the pre-existing social constructs in Western political and social discourse. In countries like Australia, the prevalence of Islamophobia can be attributed to the negative constructions about Muslims from a Western point of view.