In this study, the aims focus on analysing whether over general memory, ruminative thinking and attachment styles can predict depression scores and difficulties in emotional regulation. The World Health Organisation (2017) defines depression as a highly prevalent disorder with those affected experiencing impacted mood and behaviours with symptoms ranging in severity. According to the American Psychiatric Association, (2017) symptoms may include loss of interest towards activities an individual once enjoyed, struggles with thinking or making decisions, fatigue and thoughts of death or self-harm. The World Health Organisation estimates that the population of individuals around the world with depression is as high as 4.4% as of 2015, with depression being most common in females (World Health Organisation, 2017). To add to this, In the United Kingdom, it is estimated that the prevalence rates of depression are as high as 4.5%. Many factors have been found to impact depression with previous research by Rae (2010) showing ruminative ways of thinking to be more prevalent in those with depression. Depressed individuals have also been shown to have more over general memories thus showing that memory is another factor which contributes to the prevalence of depression (Williams, Ellis, Tyers, Healy, Rose and Macleod, 1996). MENTION ATTACHMENT. Overall, several factors have been found to impact depression throughout the years. More research into this field will allow for a greater understanding towards depression including what aspects of a person’s life may be contributing to their depression and whom may be at a greater risk. Hence the current study is important to add to research into depression and thus allowing us an even greater understanding of the mental health disorder.
Smith and Alloy (2008) explain that over the years many researchers address rumination in research without a clear, unified definition. Several models are used to explain and describe rumination with each having varying definitions and causes however one thing they all have in common is that rumination is the focus of attention towards negative experiences, their causes and their possible consequences. Research has further shown rumination to be linked to increased negative mood states and greater focus on negative memories (Cooney, Joormann, Eugène, Dennis, Gotlib, 2010). Previous research has found a relationship between rumination and higher levels of depression. In a study conducted by Raes (2010) 271 undergraduate psychology students answered questionnaires which included the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS) and the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). The results showed that ruminative styles of repetitive thinking are closely related to higher levels of depression. This was further supported by Hong (2007) whom conducted a study on 241 undergraduates in Singapore whereby participants attended two session. They were required to fill out questionnaires to assess their likelihood to engage in ruminative styles of thinking. In the second session, they were also asked to recall one major stressful event between the two sessions. The findings by Hong (2007) further showed depression to be greatly associated with rumination however, it was also found that when comparing worry and rumination, worry was the most significant factor for the development of depression over time. This therefore implies that although there is a relationship between rumination and depression, there could be other factors such a worry whom have a stronger effect on depression than rumination. Similar findings were also found by Muris, Roelofs, Meesters, and Boomsma (2004). Both the studies discussed used a similar sample size with undergraduate students. The use of undergraduate students provides issues with generalisability as it focuses on a very specific sample and thus findings may not be generalised to the rest of the population. A great part of research into depression and rumination has been conducted in American or European cultures, the fact that this research shows the same results but in Singapore adds to the idea that the findings towards depression and rumination are found across different cultures. A study conducted by Papageorigiou and Wells (2003) also found a relationship between rumination and depressive symptoms in samples of both clinically depressed and non-clinically depressed participants. In the sample of non-clinically depressed participants, a direct link was found between rumination and depression. This study further supports the link between depression and rumination.
To contrast this however, a study conducted on 337 participants aged 12-17 by Muris, Roelofs, Meesters, and Boomsma (2004) found that when looking at how rumination and worry affect depression, when worry was controlled for, there was no significant relationship between rumination and depression. This implies that rumination alone does not result in depression but rather other factors such as worry have a greater impact on depression. It may be that rumination only impacts depression if it works in conjunction with another variable such as worry or anxiety. To add to this, a study conducted by Calmes and Roberts (2007) found that, in a sample of 451 university students, worry and rumination were found to be linked to anxiety symptoms however neither were associated with depressive symptoms. This further contradicts the findings of Raes (2010) and shows that rumination may not be linked to depression. A lot of research has been conducted to support the relationship between rumination and depression however there is evidence to contradict it also. This could be attributed to differences in samples such as different age groups and different locations. Overall more research needs to be conducted to further determine the relationship between depression and rumination and whether there are other factors which may contribute to this relationship.
Autobiographical memories consist of episodic memories which look at past events directly relating to person’s own experiences and information, (Hamlat, Connolly, Hamilton, Stange, Abramson, Alloy, 2014). These autobiographical memories will occur on a particular day, at a specific time and with detailed memories associated with this event. With over general autobiographical memory however, there memories will be more generic and individual’s will have a harder time pinpointing the time period in which these events happened. Individuals will also have less detailed information surrounding the event, (Hamlat, Connolly, Hamilton, Stange, Abramson, Alloy, 2014). Over general memory has been found to be specific to disorders such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), (McNally, Lasko, Macklin & Pitman, 1995). Depressed patients have been found to give more over general and summarised versions of autobiographical memories in comparison to non-depressed individuals which thus plays a role in the maintenance of depression (Williams, Ellis, Tyers, Healy, Rose and Macleod, 1996). Williams and Scott (1988) conducted a study whereby forty participants (twenty depressed and twenty controls) were given positive and negative cue words in which they had to associate a specific autobiographical memory to. It was found that those with depression took significantly longer in responding to positive cues compared to negative cues. To add to this, the depressed participants were more over general in memory recall and less specific especially with regards to the positive cues. This therefore highlights a relationship whereby those with higher levels of depression are more likely to experience over general memory and have a harder time recollecting positive memories. Gibbs and Rude (2004) further investigated this by conducting a study on eighty-one participants to establish the relationship between over general autobiographical memory and depression. It was found that students who had higher over general memory and greater stressful life events experienced higher levels of depression symptoms after four to six weeks. Both these studies show evidence that over general memory is greatly associated with depression. It is important to note however that both studies consist of small sample sizes. Had these studies looked at a larger and wider range of participants, the findings may have been different. It is also important to note that in the Gibbs and Rude (2004) study, the time period of four to six weeks may not have been long enough to establish a difference between the variables. It could be that those with lower stress levels and lower levels of over general memory would show the same level of depressive symptoms but it could take them a longer time to achieve this. Thus, had the study looked at a time frame of ten to twelve weeks for example, the discrepancies between both conditions may not have been established. Hamlat, Connolly, Hamilton, Stange, Abramson, Alloy, (2014) also conducted a study to establish the relationship between over general autobiographical memory and depression whilst also looking at how rumination plays a role. 160 participants aged 12-13 took part in the study whereby participants were required to fill questionnaires to look at their depression symptoms, rumination styles of thinking and autobiographical memory. These questionnaires were given to participants twice, nine months apart. During the final meeting participants were also asked to detail any significant stressful life events that may have occurred during those nine months. Moreover, trained interviewers were present to collect any additional information relevant to the life event. Interestingly, this study found that rumination combined with increased levels of over general memory and high stressful life events, lead to an increase in depressive symptoms in girls however the same was not found for boys. No relationship was found between rumination and depression for either sex, so as discussed earlier, rumination may only affect depression if it is combined with another variable such as heightened over general thinking. Overall this study implies that greater levels of over general memories and less specific autobiographical memories may serve as a risk factor towards the development of depression. All three studies discussed used different samples, whereby Williams and Scott (1988) used some clinically depressed individuals whereas Hamlat, Connolly, Hamilton, Stange, Abramson, Alloy, (2014) used a sample of adolescents. Despite these differences in samples, all three studies showed very similar findings as there is strong evidence to support that over general memory can influence depressive symptoms.
Attachment is defined by Bowlby (1973) as a reciprocal bond most commonly seen between an infant and caregiver which creates a base of expectations for future relationships. Research in psychology has considered the extent to which these early attachments affect an individual’s future relationships and how they may affect a person’s mental health. Ainsworth developed the strange situation in which she established four main different attachment styles, these include the following: secure attachment, resistant (insecure) attachment, avoidant (insecure) attachment and disogranised/disoriented attachment (Ainsworth and Bell, 1970). Previous research conducted by Prior and Glaser (2006) found that in a longitudinal study, different attachment styles were associated with different behaviours. For example, secure attachment styles were found to be associated with lower emotional dependence whereas insecure attachment styles were associated with aggressiveness, negative affect, heightened anxiety and withdrawn social behaviours. Based on research like this it is interesting to consider whether different attachment styles would have an impact on an individuals’ likelihood to develop depressive symptoms.