Theories of development that can be used to evaluate the case
Freud’s psychosexual development theory
This theory explains the development of personality through successive stages in childhood. At every state, the ID is focused on a different erogenous zone. Freud defined an erogenous zone as an area of the body that is sensitive to stimulation. The five psychosocial stages are the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages. Lomas et al. (2016) stated that at every stage, a different zone acts as the source of pleasure. Freud further argued that the libido is the force that drives behavior among people. The psychoanalytic theory states that the age of five usually develops individual personality. A child's early experiences play an important role in personality development and continue to influence personal behavior for the rest of the life. When a child is not able to successfully move to the next stage, he/ she is fixated at that stage.
Ricardo is at the genital stage of personality development as indicated by Freud. This is the final stage of psychosexual development, which starts from the onset of puberty and persists throughout an individual’s life. Individuals at this stage develop increased interactions with members of same and opposite sex. While the previous stages are marked by egocentrism due to the dominance of the ID, a person develops the interest in the welfare of others in this stage due to the combination of the ego and the Superego in defining individual behavior. If the person is not fixated at any other stage, he/ she develops a balanced, warm and caring personality.
Also, an individual at the genital stage can balance the basic urges with the needs to conform to the societal needs. Ricardo seems to have been fixated at the oral stage, which starts from birth to the age of one year. Fixation at this stage leads to dependency on an adult, which is indicated by Ricardo’s reliance on the teacher to provide concrete examples in class. The teacher is concerned that Ricardo may never grow to be an independent, intrinsically motivated and self-regulated learner. Ricardo’s social domain is aligned with the psychosexual theory since he enjoys hanging out with friends and is easily distracted by his peers. Also, he is usually caught talking to friends and distracting them while in class.
Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development
Erickson maintained that development occurs through eight stages that follow a predetermined order. Lomas et al. (2016) suggested that at every stage, individuals experience psychosocial crisis, which is associated with either positive or negative effects on their personality development. The successful completion of all the stages leads to the development of a healthy personality. According to Erickson, Ricardo is at the identity vs. role confusion age, which occurs between 12 and 18 years.
Individuals at this stage experience an identity crisis hence explore various ideas, beliefs and goals as they seek to form their autonomous identities. In addition, adolescents have a strong affiliation with friends and peers as opposed to their parents. Failure to establish an own identity at the end of this stage leads to role confusion where individuals are not aware of themselves or the roles they need to play in the society. This explanation shows why Ricardo has explored various social roles and identities in the past few months. Ricardo’s social and outgoing personality can also be explained by the use of this theory.
Piaget’s cognitive development theory
Jean Piaget’s theory shows that children usually move through four different stages of mental development. Lomas et al. (2016) noted that the four stages include the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage and formal operations stage. Piaget stated that children are active participants in the learning process. Ricardo’s age is aligned with the formal operational stage according to Piaget, which begins at 12 years and ends at 18 years. The primary forms of development that take place at this stage include the development of abstract thinking in order to solve hypothetical problems, analysis of ideologies (ethical, social, moral and social) within the society and the use of deductive logic from the general to the specific. The development of abstract thinking processes is the reason why Ricardo develops misconceptions about ideas and information and why he is interested in learning math’s and music, which are scientific subjects as opposed to history, which is a social science. Ricardo has not developed the ability to solve problems from the general to the specific hence the reason why he gives up when asked to solve difficult problems in class.
Learning theories that can be used to assess the case study
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
This theory assumes that children live in different social contexts that advance their cognitions through the interactions with adults in their lives. This theory also states that social learning precedes development. Most of the learning among children occurs through their interaction with skillful adults who act as the models to the behaviors exhibited by children. Shabani et al. (2010) argued that Vygotsky came up with the aspect of the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) to define an individual who has a better understanding or ability than the learner. In the case study, Ricardo is heavily relying on the directions and examples given by the teacher who in this case is the MKO. Vygotsky also developed the notion of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which indicates the difference between what the child can learn independently and what the student can only understand through the guidance and encouragement of an adult.
Children should be taught within their ZPD so that they can develop higher mental skills. Ricardo has failed to achieve independence, intrinsic motivation and self-regulated behavior since the teacher is not teaching him within his ZPD. According to (Shabani et al. 2010), Vygotsky also stated that students’ interactions with their peers are an effective strategy that helps them in developing skills. In this case, teachers use collaborative learning strategies where the competent children assist the less skilled kids to understand a topic. The teacher needs to develop more tolerance with Ricardo regarding his disruptive behavior. Also, the teacher can use Ricardo’s close connection with his peers to develop collaborative learning where the more knowledgeable classmates teach him in order to enhance understanding.
Theory of operant conditioning by B. F Skinner
This theory states that behavior is primarily dictated by the consequences associated. Usually, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated while the one followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Necessarily, any behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated while the one that lacks reinforcement will cease existing. Vargas (2017) suggested that positive and negative reinforcement increases the possibility of repeat behavior while. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by removing an unpleasant consequence. Punishment serves to weaken or eliminate a specific behavior. In the case of punishment, the behavior is discouraged by the existence of an aversive consequence. Operant conditioning explains why the teacher uses various kinds of behavioral reinforcement and consequences to motivate Ricardo to learn.
Instructional methods and strategies that can support the learning and development of Ricardo
Cooperative learning
This strategy encourages collaboration among students by enhancing their working in small groups. Seechaliao (2017) observed that cooperation is aligned with the aspect of collaborative learning developed by Vygotsky. In this case, the peers to a child who understand a specific topic more help the other student to learn and understand. Ricardo can benefit from this strategy since he is social and outgoing and has many friends in the classroom.
Inquiry-based instruction
In this case, the teacher uses some thought to provoke questions to inspire independent learning among students. Kistner et al. (2015) maintained that encouraging students to ask questions increases their problem-solving skills and increases their understanding regarding various academic concepts. In the case study, Ricardo is usually unable to solve challenging tasks in the classroom. The use of inquiry-based learning would help him to achieve independent learning through developing intrinsic motivation and self-regulated behavior.
Differentiation
This involves giving tasks within the student’s abilities to ensure that they understand instructions. Seechaliao (2017) stated that in this case, the instruction is tailored to meet the needs of specific students. Students who did not understand a specific topic are therefore offered the appropriate support that increases their understanding of the topic. Regarding the case study, the teacher needs to offer Ricardo special instruction that will help him develop autonomy in learning.
Behavior management
This involves using an effective behavior management strategy that will facilitate respect within the classroom and ensure that all the students have an equal chance to excel. Kistner et al. (2015) pointed out that noisy and disruptive classrooms affect the ability of students to learn and understand the concepts taught. In the case study, Ricardo is portrayed as sometimes having disruptive behavior that causes the teacher to send him out sometimes. The teacher needs to enhance discipline through the development of a rewards and punishment strategy. The reward will only be used when Ricardo remains silent in the classroom while punishment will be used when he misbehaves. This strategy would help in fostering mutual respect between the students and the teacher hence leading to a productive learning environment.
Using technological devices in the classroom
In the past few decades, the world has moved away from the analog to the digital due to the rapid technological advances taking place. Industries such as the education, banking and business sectors have been at the forefront in incorporating technology-driven strategies in their systems. The classroom indicated in the cases study is typically traditional since it does not use technology to facilitate instruction. Seechaliao (2017) noted that incorporating technology in the classroom is a meaningful way that actively engages students and keeps them motivated. Technology increases the level of interaction between students and the teacher since it keeps students physically and psychologically engaged during lessons. In the case study, it is advisable for the teacher to use technology to motivate Ricardo since this would help him to develop autonomy.
Professional development
Teachers need to engage in regular professional development programs that enhance teaching and learning in the classrooms. Kistner et al. (2015) posited that the educational policies and changing by the day hence calling for increased professional development among teachers. Through engaging in career development programs, the teacher in the case study will develop better strategies to cope with Ricardo and develop a framework that will help him achieve intrinsic motivation, self-regulated behavior and autonomy.