Abstract
This research proposal seeks to explore the effects of Labelling and Stereotype Threat on Offender Reintegration. It focuses on the experiences of repeat offenders and aims to enquire the extent to which, the stigmatization of prisoners contributes to recidivism through unsuccessful reintegration. After being released from prison, offenders are faced with many challenges that act as hurdles in their reintegration efforts. Due to the criminal record that is attached to the offenders prior to release, they are often stereotyped, stigmatized and excluded by the community they are attempting to reintegrate into. The study intends to examine the way in which prisoners internalize these stereotypes attached to them due to their criminal record and how this affects their reintegration into society and by extension, their recidivism. Through this research, we would understand the offender’s perspective on why they reoffend and how society contributes.
Statement of the problem / Importance of Study
This study was designed to examine the effects of Labelling, Stigma and Stereotype Threat on Recidivism and Offender Reintegration. I intend to examine the relationship between negative labelling and stereotype threat on offender reintegration and recidivism. The following discussion examines the importance of all aspects related to this study, including previous research and theoretical perspectives that may aid in understanding the possible relationship. Prior studies have been done however, there are limited studies conducted in the Caribbean with regards to offender reintegration and recidivism rates.
Specifically, I wanted to examine the three themes of reintegration: employability, housing and familial support to determine if there is a relationship between them and failed offender reintegration in Trinidad and Tobago. A second aim of this study is to examine the recidivism rates in relation to failed reintegration attempts; to understand what caused the reintegration process to fail and the effect society has on recidivism rates. In 2015, the recidivism rate for Trinidad and Tobago was recorded to be 53% (Ministry of the Attorney General 2015). While the vision of the Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service seeks to reduce offending, there is a need for more research on the reintegration process that can be useful in reducing recidivism in Trinidad and Tobago due to the difference in values and norms.
It is important to note the positive implications this research may have as it seeks to provide a better understanding from the perspective of offenders, the difficulties faced during reintegration and why they recidivate. A better understanding of recidivism from a different perspective may give rise to possible methods to reduce the recidivism rates by the implementation of new approaches and practices.
Research Question
Does labelling and stereotype threat contribute to an offender’s failed reintegration attempts that result in recidivism?
Introduction
Reintegration is a common goal for all institutions that seek to decrease the recidivism rate in their respected countries but little is known about the nature of the relationship between reintegration and recidivism. Recidivism remains one of the main concerns in prison systems and is an important measure of how well prisons are able to successfully reintegrate offenders into society (James, 2015). The present study, will attempt to bring together both the Criminological aspect of Reintegration and Labelling Theory and the Psychological aspect of Stereotype Threat, to understand if and to what extent these aspects play a role in failed reintegration attempts that ends in recidivism in Trinidad and Tobago.
The idea for this research proposal is based on a topic that was previously done in Canada, however; I would be exploring the topic from a different perspective and taking into consideration, new elements of the Caribbean culture or more specifically, the culture of Trinidad and Tobago would be taken into consideration as results may differ across the globe due to the differences in culture, norms and values. The research question being explored is: “The effects of Labelling, Stigma and Stereotype Threat on Recidivism and Offender Reintegration”.
The element of the research proposal would be focused on the impact of societal prejudices on recidivism. The significance of the study would be to form or further develop our understanding from the offender’s perspective, factors that contribute to recidivism or hinders a successful reintegration process. This information is relevant for policy makers, employers, public agencies and, independent units such as family members in their involvement post release. It seeks to contribute to positive social change for prison officials and mental health professionals in identifying contributing risk factors to assist in combating recidivism. My development of the literature review involved research through various online sources and search engines, including journals, government articles, and dissertations from different multidisciplinary databases and search engines including Google Scholar, Jstor, Research Gate and, EBSCOhost. Keyword terms I used in this search included recidivism, reintegration, stigma, stereotype, offender stereotype, stereotype threat, labelling theory, offender, reoffenders and, ex-inmates. The objective of this research seeks to provide an indication of if offenders believe that society contributes to them reoffending and what can be done to aid in their efforts to reintegrate into society. In summary, this research hopes to critically examine the manner in which stigma and stereotype threat has a considerable impact on an offender’s ability to successfully reintegrate into society.
Labelling Theory
Labelling Theory, according to Becker is based on the belief that certain members within society possess the ability to construct and apply attributes to other members of that same society. The application of the often negative label from one group to another allows the then labelled group to be stigmatized and considered to be unconventional in society. This theory suggests that identity and self-concept are defined continuously by social interaction (Akers & Sellers, 2009). As a result, it can be concluded that the individuals who are labelled negatively, will integrate this label into their self perception. Another ideology presented was that instead of acting in the ways that would contradict the label, those who are labelled would behave in a manner to confirm it; once the deviant label is applied, it can lead to more deviance ( DeFleur and Goffman, 1964). The labelling theory is an important on in criminological literature as it explains that once the deviant or negative labelling is applied it becomes an individual’s primary identity and seen as more important than all the other aspects of that individual. A person without a negative label for example, who volunteers to work late would be praised for being a hard worker whereas a person negatively labelled as a thief would not be praised instead, it might seem suspicious and might be seen as having ulterior motives. Thus, it is possible that offenders act in a manner to reconfirm the stereotypes attached to them which results in a difficult reintegration process.
Offender Stereotype
The labels that are applied to offenders are usually negative and portray them as undesirable and dangerous individuals that should be avoided in society. Society negatively labels ex-offenders due to the stigma of prison attached to them post release and are also viewed as uneducated and unhygienic. This results in other members of the society or community perceiving individuals with criminal records as less important which leads to the spurning of these individuals from legitimate and integral aspects in society (Hirschfield & Piquero, 2010). These labels and stereotypes placed on the offenders by other members in society places them at a disadvantage and could make them potentially susceptible to stereotype threat.
Stereotype Threat
Stereotype threat is a term coined by social scientists Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson who defined it as “being at risk of conforming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group”. This means that when an individual is placed in a situation where a negative stereotype about their identity could be applied, they are aware of what others may think and understand that any action done that fits the stereotype can be taken as confirming it (Steele, 2011). It is described as the discomfort that is felt when individuals are at risk of confirming a negative stereotype. Presently, the criminological literature does not focus on offenders as potentially vulnerable to stereotype threat however; stereotype threat may influence their behaviour and has the potential provide an explanation for the inability of successful reintegration. Offenders face a number of obstacles that hinder their reintegration process including being excluded from certain employment opportunities based on their criminal history (Graffam, Shinkfield and Hardcastle, 2007). It is possible that offenders will not apply to certain job vacancies because they believe that they are already negatively labelled and will not be considered. It can be suggested that some offenders are faced with unsuccessful reintegration not because they are excluded by members of society but because they are unable to avoid behaviours that confirm the stereotype they are trying to avoid.
Reintegration
At present, literature and research on offender reintegration notes that offenders face a large number of issues post release upon reintegration. Among these issues, the most common faced by offenders is the lack of community and social bonds as they have deteriorated during the period of incarceration and they are left severed from society post release (Petersilia, 2001).
Another common problem faced by offenders is the difficulty finding employment which is due to insufficient education, a lack of job skills or their criminal history (Graffam, Shinkfield and Hardcastle, 2007). Research also indicates that offenders have difficulty locating appropriate and affordable housing that does not violate their parole or provides an environment to reoffend (Petersilia, 2001). All of these factors increase their chances for unsuccessful reintegration and thus, recidivism.
Recidivism
Recidivism is an essential aspect in criminological literature and is defined as the repetition of or returning to criminal behaviour by the same offender that results in the re-arrest, reconviction or re-incarceration of the individual (Chenane et al., 2014). Recidivism, according to prior research can be influenced by a number of factors including lack of education, lack of mental health service, and, job opportunities (Lockwood et al. 2012). Recidivism rates, according to the Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service (TTPrS) in 2009 and 2010 respectively, declined from 65% to 47%. However, there was an increase in 2015 to a rate of 53% (Ministry of the Attorney General 2015). The vision of the TTPrS, like any other prison service, aims to reduce offending however, despite efforts by the various government and non-government organizations to reduce the alarmingly high recidivism rates, there is a need for more research on the reintegration process that can be useful in reducing recidivism.
Literature review
This section provides a snapshot review of the literature on reintegration issues faced by offenders, the impact of reintegration after prison and criminological theories and terms that may be relevant to understanding the reintegration process, its hindrances and reasons for reoffending from an offender’s perspective. It will attempt to review the Criminological literature and research on Labelling Theory and the Psychological literature and research on Stereotype Threat to establish a link between issues faced by offenders during reintegration and their vulnerability to stereotype threat which can result in reoffending.
Labelling Theory as a Method of Applying Stereotype
This theoretical perspective relies on the interactionist perspective which suggests that “an individual’s identity and self-concept, cognitive processes, values, and attitudes are seen only as existing in the context of society acting, reacting, and changing in social interaction with others,” (Akers & Sellers, 2009, p.152). The individuals who are negatively labelled will internalize the label placed upon them and begin to view themselves as deviant; they would accept this label as part of their self-identity and behave in ways that confirm the label that is placed upon them (Akers & Sellers, 2009; DeFleur and Goffman, 1964). In summary, theorists note that deviant labels serve as a reinforcing factor and promotes further deviant behaviour. Labelling theory is especially important in the discussion of reintegration as it has the potential to explain why some offenders have unsuccessful reintegration and or recidivate. “Criminal”, “offender”, “convict” are all terms with a high level of stigma that form deviant labels used to refer to individuals who have been incarcerated.
Individuals who are referred to by these labels are rejected and excluded by society making it difficult for them to live by legitimate means in society; Obtaining a legitimate job and acquiring accommodation becomes difficult as members of society refuses to be associated with these negatively labelled individuals. These individuals also lack social ties as incarceration has deteriorated their relationships causing the loss of family and friends as a proper support system, pushing them to associate with other individuals who are negatively labelled (Cullen & Agnew, 2006).
The Criminal Stereotype
A criminal is perceived to be an individual who has been convicted of a crime or who engages in criminal activity. When the term “criminal” or other related terms such as “convict” or “prisoner” comes to mind, it also carries with it the concepts, images and experiences that form a mental representation of a criminal. While there is a large amount of research done on stereotypes in general, the research specific to the criminal stereotype is very limited. However, the limited research suggests that there are stereotypes for the mentally ill, different ages and, criminal offenders (MacLin, & Herrera, 2006). This literature amongst others suggests that there are many stereotypes existing for offenders as the larger society frowns upon on offenders as they find them to be dangerous, unhygienic, uneducated and undesirable. One of the major hurdles faced by offenders upon reintegration is negative stereotyping which results in labelling, stigmatization and exclusion (Hirschfield & Piquero, 2010). According to Carr and Steele (2009), “Chronically stigmatized minorities, facing an ongoing and almost ever-present social identity threat spanning many situations may be constantly burdened by identity threat” (p. 858).
This results in the assumption that a large amount of time would be spent managing the negative stereotypes that are associated with the criminal identity (Akers & Sellers, 2009; DeFleur and Goffman, 1964). With any stereotype, the stereotype group attempts to avoid behaviours that can confirm the label that is attached and the inability to avoid such behaviours only confirms the stereotype; this is known as Stereotype Threat.
Stereotype Threat
Stereotype threat is a phenomenon that happens when the stereotyped individual is worried about conforming to or confirming the negative stereotype that is attached (Steele & Aronson, 1995). In other words, stereotype threat is a concern by the stigmatized individuals who are worried about behaving in a manner that could confirm the negative group stereotype which can in fact lead to acting in ways that confirms the stereotype. This happens because the attention and concentration that is necessary to carry out a task or behaviour is now diverted away from the actual performance to identity management ( DeFleur and Goffman, 1964). Prior research also suggests that when individuals experience the stereotype phenomenon, there are attempts to suppress their emotions to perform better however; this has the opposite effect (Steele & Aronson, 1995). While there are researchers who support the view that the anxiety felt by individuals experiencing stereotype threat are negative and can contribute to poor task performance, there are others who suggests that this anxiety can be helpful to the stigmatized individuals as they are constantly vigilant to threats and negative treatment. It is also suggested that individuals who confront these threats tend to have an increased performance while whose who show avoidance preserve a low performance (Cohen and Garcia, 2008).
Offender Reintegration into Society after incarceration
Upon their release from prison, offenders face a large amount of issues when attempting to reintegrate into society such as obtaining sustainable employment, appropriate housing and re-establishing the social and family bonds that were previously broken by years of incarceration; all of which play an integral role in successful reintegration (Bales and Mears, 2008). Another important factor in successful offender reintegration is release planning as it provides the offenders with knowledge of what to expect post release. The incarceration process can be long and lonely as inmates are disconnected from society. Due to the ever evolving nature of the world, an inmate who was incarcerated for twenty years would not meet the same society he left; there would be changes in policies, laws and social norms. In discussing and researching reintegration, there are three common themes: employment, housing and support from family and friends; all of which are most important and influential factors for successful reintegration after incarceration (Bales and Mears, 2008; Grier, 2015; Harris and Keller, 2005). Each theme would be briefly discussed below.
Finding legitimate employment
After incarceration, for an offender to reintegrate successfully into society, they need to obtain secure, legitimate and sustainable employment. This however, can be difficult as many employers are no open to the idea of employing ex-offenders and there are existing barriers for certain jobs which prevent employers from hiring individuals with a criminal history (Harris and Keller, 2005; Graffam, Shinkfield and Hardcastle, 2007).
Obtaining appropriate housing
Apart from obtaining legitimate employment, offenders are faced with the difficulty of obtaining appropriate housing. Typically, offenders return to the community in which they were living prior to their incarceration however, research has shown that those who have been incarcerated for long periods of time may no longer have social ties within that community and thus, unable to return to the home they once knew (Bales and Mears, 2008). Additionally, the difficulty increases as while offenders are able to find affordable housing, they are unable to reside there as it may violate their parole conditions, increase their risk of recidivism or be rejected by landlords who are unwilling to rent to an individual with a criminal history (Maidment, 2006; Petersilia, 2001)
Support from family and friends
Some offenders do have the viable option of living with their families and chose to live with them (Bales and Mears, 2001). However, that opportunity is on the decline as removing individuals from their communities for long term incarceration interferes with the existing social networks in that it disrupts or severs marriages, friendships and families (Travis and Waul 2003). While rebuilding a relationship is a challenge for both the offender and the family members they are returning to, it welcomes the possibility of restoring interaction which can result in increased levels of trust both within the family and by extension, the community. Choosing not to rebuild however, negatively impacts overall sense of belonging and trust (Travis and Waul 2003). Although it has not been extensively researched, a few articles discuss the importance of emotional support for the offender to feel loved and valued upon release. In this, family support has the potential to provide the offender with stigma management and identity to ease the reintegration process.
Reintegration and Stereotype
The criminological literature briefly discussed above provides a great amount of research in relation to the impact of reintegration on offenders. However, the research conducted to determine the effects of stereotype threat on offender reintegration and or recidivism is limited. The present literature does not acknowledge or focus on offenders as a group that can be vulnerable to the stereotype phenomenon. Offenders are aware that they are labelled negatively after their release from prison and this awareness can potentially lead to poor performance due to managing stereotypes and as a consequence, confirm the stereotype (Steele and Aronson, 1995).
Stereotype threat can be challenging for offenders who are seeking housing or employment due to the fact that they are extremely focused on attempting to portray a good character regardless of their label, they lose focus in other areas and this costs them their potential employability. It is also argued that some offenders are unsuccessful at reintegrating due to the contribution of stereotype threat.
Methodology
Presently, there has not been any significant research to determine if offenders experience stereotype threat or if and how this phenomenon affects their reintegration process. The study will adopt a qualitative approach to assessing the nature and extent of the contribution labelling and stereotype threat plays in an offender’s failed reintegration attempts that result in recidivism. The qualitative data that will be gathered will allow each participant to explain how they have or have not been affected by labelling and stereotype threat in their attempt to reintegrate into society and if there were any negative effects that resulted in reoffending.
Participants
The target population for this study included participants from both the Golden Grove Men’s Prison and the Women’s Prison in Trinidad and Tobago. Due to the qualitative nature of the study, it is proposed that the sample size for this study should be twenty (20) participants; ten (10) from each prison system. All participants must be repeat offenders at the respected prison system and must be over the age of twenty-five (25) to qualify for participation on this study.
Data Collection Instruments
The interview questionnaire will contain twenty-four (24) open ended questions that ask participants to discuss from their experiences, issues they would have faced upon release related to labelling, stereotype threat and the effects it had on their reintegration process. There are some demographic questions that will enquire about their age, racial background and level of education. Questions concerning their reintegration will enquire them to disclose any issues they were faced with post release in relation to support from family, employment and the types of community support that were available to them. These questions will aid in determining if and how well they felt they were being reintegrated after incarceration and will provide further insight to researchers into how well the participant adjusted. The questionnaire also contains questions related to the labelling theory as they would allow researchers to determine the way in which the participant perceives himself/herself due to both his/her criminal record and his/her incarceration; they also allow researchers to determine the extent to which they participant feels labelled by society and if he/she would experience stereotype threat.
Procedure
The procedure and data collection would be conducted through this study and will adhere to the University of The West Indies ethical standards. The research, once approved by the Trinidad and Tobago Prison Service will be conducted over a period of two (2) months. A request for formal authorization to access the reoffending prison population would be done to access the appropriate sample. Upon authorization, every 10th or 20th name would be selected from the list provided to select all ten (10) participants from each prison.
Participants would be interviewed in depth about their experiences after incarceration during their reintegration process and the difficulties they may have faced. They would also be asked to provide information based on their personal experiences about their reoffending after being released. Once the data is collected, it would be transcribed to capture the precise detail of the participants’ perspectives and experiences.
Limitations of the Study
The use of the in depth interview cannot guarantee that the information collected is representative of the actual behaviour and experiences of the offenders as it is based on self-reporting. Another limitation could be that participants may be hesitant to participate due to unwillingness to discuss private experiences.
Significance of the Study
The recidivism rate in Trinidad and Tobago has been continuously fluctuating over the past few years but throughout this fluctuation, it has remained high. To understand recidivism, one must be able to understand why reintegration is failing and causing the offender to reoffend and be re-arrested. This study hopes to provide a better understanding of recidivism in Trinidad and Tobago and what can be done according to the offenders themselves to increase successful reintegration and decrease recidivism. This study hopes to benefit:
Future Researchers will benefit from having data to build upon for future research.
Offenders as they are faced with challenges after they are released from prison that may contribute to their failed attempt at reintegration and recidivism. They should find the study useful in recognizing that there are faults in our criminal justice system and attempts are continuously being made to assist them in becoming functioning members in society.
The Prison Service will also find this study useful as it gives them the data that is necessary to acknowledge whether there is an issue with the current prison system and may allow them to consider other programmes such as re-entry preparation or rehabilitative services prior to release.
Government and Policy makers should also find this research important as crime is unwanted in any society. A government should find significant value in understanding the importance of the offenders perspectives and experiences and how policies can be put in place to assist them in their reintegration efforts by either reforming the prison system, implementing rehabilitative services, offering mental health services such as psychological testing or implementing reintegrative housing communities to assist offenders to gradually ease into society.
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