Introduction
The spread of the English language is defined by Widdowson (1997) as “implies adaptation and non-conformity” has brought about various implications.
1. World Englishes paradigm
According to the World Englishes (WE) paradigm, there are many varieties of English. The concept of World Englishes is used as an umbrella term to embody the numerous new varieties of English (Jenkins, 2006). Kachru categorizes Englishes based on their function and history through three concentric circles of World Englishes. The categorizing varieties of English are the Inner circle, Outer circle and Expanding circle (Kachru, 1985). The Inner circle consists of countries like the United States of America, Canada, and England where English is a native language. Inner circle Englishes are called native Englishes. The Outer circle consists of countries where English has been indigenized due to colonization by the United States or the United Kingdom. Countries like India, Singapore, and Nigeria are such countries where English is used officially in the administration, spoken by many in daily life and taught in schools. English in such countries is referred to as nativized Englishes (Brown & Kachru, 1995). In the Expanding circle, English is taught in schools but not commonly spoken or used in daily life, such countries are China and Indonesia where English is called performance varieties (Kachru, Kachru & Nelson, 2009). WE focus on nationalism (Pennycook, 2007) and makes such Englishes unsuitable for global communication. The WE paradigm also views Outer and Expanding circles Englishes as a lower standard compared to Inner circle Englishes.
2. English as a Lingua Franca paradigm
English paradigm is English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Jenkins (2006) establishes the ELF paradigm where ELF is “a contact language used only among non-mother tongue speakers”. It is also important to note that ELF differs from nativized (Outer circle) varieties of English. House (2003) mentions that ELF is used for communication and not identification and proceeds to allege that ELF does not threaten local languages. ELF is used for international purposes; education (Phillipson, 1992), business transactions and communication with the Western world (Sharma, 2008), used by Outer and Expanding circle countries to interact with the rest of the world (Pandey & Pandey, 2014) for their own interests.
3. Reasons for the spread of English
One reason for the spread of English is due to the language imperialism. Phillipson (1992) defines language imperialism as “the dominance of English is asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages”. It refers to the imposition of English over mother tongues for communication. This could occur when countries are colonized by native-English countries like the United Kingdom where English is designated as the official language.
Another reason for spurring the spread of English is the opportunities that English brings to its users (Halliday, 2003). Sharma (2008) states that a growing endorsement of English in the “commerce, technology, media and education in various countries where English serves as a global lingua franca” which brings economic, social and political benefits to its users. Such benefits that English brings is a crucial motivation for the spread of English.
While the spread of the English has brought about negative implications of a more homogenous world in terms of languages and cultures, I argue that the spread of the English language has actually brought about increased linguistic diversity and strengthened cultural identity in Outer and Expanding circles countries.
Linguistic diversity
There are criticisms of how the spread of English would cause declined linguistic diversity and consequently, a more homogenous world. When two communities speaking different languages come into contact, many outcomes can occur and one of which is the death of the less dominant language. Language death as defined by Campbell (1994) “is the loss of a language due to a gradual shift to the dominant language in language contact situations”. Admittedly, English could play a role in inducing language deaths when language shift occurs, and native languages are not passed down to the younger generations. Language shift is defined as “the gradual displacement of one language by another in the lives of the community members” (Hornberger, 2010). Over time, English becomes the preferred language over native languages when a community uses another language in place of their own (Kandler, Unger & Steele, 2010). Consequently, selective forgetting of native languages could cause future generations to be completely detached from their native language, and consequently, a world with diminished linguistic diversity.
Although the spread of English has led to language deaths of some mother tongues, there is also an increase in varieties of English which increases linguistic diversity. When English from the Inner circle is first introduced to the outer and expanding circles countries where both groups have no common language, English will come into contact with local languages. In a situation where, local languages and English hybridizes, a contact language is formed. Stockwell (2007) states that “a hybrid language can develop known as a pidgin” where only adults use the language and no children speak it. Over time, when children learn the pidgin as a native language and the pidgin has become more complex and underwent lexicon innovation, the pidgin is called a creole. The various types of creoles fall on a continuum with the acrolect form being a nativized variety of standard English and the mesolect form as the colloquial variety. One example is Standard Singaporean English as an acrolect form and Singlish as the mesolect form. This is the process which new varieties of Englishes arise. Thus, it is not entirely true that there is a drop in linguistic diversity.
Cultural identity
There is a belief that increased use of English would endanger mother tongues and lead to a homogenous culture around the world. Due to the benefits that English brings, English becomes the preferred language for communication as compared to mother tongues. This leads to a declined usage of mother tongues. The loss of mother tongues not only involves the loss of the vocabulary and lexicon, but it is also the diminution of tone, accent, grammar, syntax, and context (Limited, 2018). Language is a vehicle of communication within a community and moulds an individual’s outlook on life (Emmitt, Zbaracki, Komesaroff & Pollock, 1997) and facilitates how a community prescribes meaning to things. Crucially, not using mother tongues could terminate connections to one’s culture. Hence, using English over mother tongues may lead to a loss of identity and detachment from one’s heritage.
Although I concede that the spread of English could reduce local culture, the reduction of cultural identity is insignificant because of multilingualism. As elaborated by House (2003), “ELF… (is) a repertoire of different communicative instruments” and does not offer identity marking. While users in the outer and expanding countries use ELF for pragmatic reasons, they do not identify with it (House, 2003). Instead, their mother tongues are used to relate to their culture. House (2003) argues that increased usage of ELF does not endanger native languages as English is unsuitable for identity marking. ELF is not a considerable replacement for mother tongues because the two languages serve distinct functions. In order to retain cultural identity and reap the benefits that ELF brings, people become multilingual. With the increasing number of multilingual around the world (Waggoner, 1993), English is seen as an accompaniment to and not a replacement for mother tongues. Crucially, being multilingual allow users to obtain opportunities that ELF brings while remaining rooted in their heritage through their mother tongues. So, it is untrue that English will cut off the connection to mother tongues and lead to a suppression of cultural identity, it is the converse that is true.
Secondly, cultural identity is not only found in mother tongues but in nativized varieties of English too. This emergence of nativized varieties of English contributes to increased cultural identity. For example, nativized (Outer circle) varieties of English like Standard Singaporean English and Singlish are divergent from Inner circle Englishes like Standard American English and British English because the former have been influenced by other local languages like Malay and Mandarin through lexicon innovation. Lexical innovation occurs when existing lexicon is unable to fully describe a contextual meaning. The reason is that a language used by a community must make sense to them and empower them to feel that they have ownership over it (Luk & Lin, 2007). The nativized Englishes contain their own lexicon, grammar and structure that are unique (Sharma, 2008), reflecting the other languages that are present in their culture. Nativized and colloquial Englishes that were influenced by mother tongues contribute to the locals’ cultural identity as it exhibits the local values and beliefs. Also, Whorf (1965) urges that when users use a language, they comply to adjust their communication and thoughts in a particular manner to view the world in a certain manner. Moreover, nativized Englishes cultivate a common mindset and unites its users in ways that other Englishes cannot. Thus, nativized varieties of English are manifestations of their respective cultures and call forth strengthens cultural identity.
Conclusion
The world is said to have become more homogenous linguistically and culturally, but the converse is true. The implications of the spread of English are mainly more positive than negative due to the rise linguistic diversity as well as increased cultural identity. It will be necessary to recognize nativized Englishes as legitimate varieties to be taught in schools, instead of Inner circle Englishes, in the Outer and Expanding circle countries. If this could be implemented, English would empower users from the Outer and Expanding circle countries to be confident in their use of English.