Written in 1766, John Milton’s Paradise Lost is a twelve book epic-style poem that examines not only the creation of all beings, but the fall of mankind from Eden into sin. It follows Christian tradition while also incorporating elements of classical antiquity, in order to tell what Milton claimed to be the truest narrative. Paradise Lost has been the subject of heated academic debate since it was first published, and the conversation continues even into modern day. More specifically, Milton’s Satan has been a long favored topic when examining Paradise Lost. Despite Milton being a devout Christian Protestant, Satan is written with the most intricate rhetoric in the narrative and is given what would seem to be many qualities of a hero. Satan appears to be especially admirable in the first introduction readers get of him, in book one where he is presented as brave, courageous and honorable. One of the main virtues Satan appears to embody in the early books of Paradise Lost is fortitude. Fortitude is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as, “unyielding courage in the endurance of pain or adversity. (One of the cardinal virtues)” (OED) and is often referenced in regards to Christianity and Christ himself. Despite the fact that it may seem as though Satan exemplifies the virtue of heroic fortitude, Milton undermines this characteristic in Satan by using Christ and Adam to show the ideal embodiment of fortitude.
In Satan’s speech in book one, after being expelled from Heaven and waking on the burning lake in Hell, he appears to be a prime example of fortitude. Satan is coming off of a huge loss against the angels and God in the battle in Heaven, and the fallen angels, as well as Satan himself, are full of rage and despair after being expelled from Heaven. In an attempt to reconcile with this despair, Satan says, “What though the field be lost?/ All is not lost: th’unconquerable will/ And study of revenge, immortal hate/ And courage never to submit or yield–” (Milton, I. 105-108). Here, Satan is make a display of courage, and is convincing himself just as much as he is convincing the other fallen angels that despite losing the battle, they will persevere. Satan referring to his “unconquerable will” shows that he wants to appear as strong and courageous in a time of great adversity. He believes that no matter what losses he and the fallen angels suffer, their willpower is one thing God cannot destroy or take away. Rather than accept defeat, Satan decides to present himself as the brave warrior king and charismatic leader. Satan says, “this the seat / That we must change for Heav’n, this mournful gloom/ For that celestial light” (I. 243-244). Referring to Hell as a “mournful gloom” shows that Satan is suffering in Hell despite trying to remain courageous. He is mourning the loss of the “celestial light” that he had only while in Heaven. Satan has no choice but to endure and accept the suffering Hell has to offer him. This acceptance is illustrated when Satan says: “Hail horrors, hail/ Infernal world! And thou, profoundest Hell,/ Receive thy new possessor” (I. 250-252). “Horrors” is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “a painful emotion compounded of loathing and fear; a shuddering with terror and repugnance; strong aversion mingled with dread” (OED). In this sense, Satan mock-celebrating this terrible emotion further highlights his acceptance of his suffering in Hell. In book two, while informing the demonic council about his journey to Earth to destroy God’s creation, Satan says, “I abroad/ Through all the coasts of dark destruction seek/ Deliverance for us all!/ This enterprise/ None shall partake with me” (II. 462-466). Satan going up against “dark destruction” in order to seek “deliverance” for the fallen angels appears to be a selfless task, and seems to exemplify heroic fortitude through his courageous endeavor to take on this dangerous journey alone.
However, Satan’s fortitude is undermined with Milton’s representation of true fortitude through Christ and Adam. As Gerald J. Schiffhorst examines in his journal article entitled, “Satan’s False Heroism in Paradise Lost As a Perversion of Patience”, Satan’s “fortitude is physical, selfish, vain and temporally rash” (Schiffhorst, 15). As a representation of fortitude in Paradise Lost, Satan is merely an example of a perversion of the much purer form of fortitude that is seen in Christ and Adam. Satan’s “proud defiance associated with Stoic fortitude…leads ultimately to the self (and therefore to despair)” (15). His fortitude is based upon rage and refusal to show weakness, rather than in true courage and bravery, and is motivated further by his pride and selfishness (15). When Satan is declaring to embark on the journey to Earth alone in book two, it is less about not wanting to put anyone else in danger and more about not wanting to share the glory with anyone else. While Satan thinks of himself as the perfect embodiment of heroism, in reality, the fallen angels and Satan are “deluding themselves temporarily by substituting martial valor for rage and despair” (Schiffhorst, 16) which is not a true representation of fortitude, but rather of sinful pride. Satan’s representation of fortitude is self-serving and therefore artificial, a point that is explored further by Milton when he illustrates, using Christ and Adam, the true Christian ideal of fortitude.
While Satan represents rage and despair, Christ brings a new hope by being the redeemer. Christ appears for the first time to readers in book 4, where he is exemplified as the savior of mankind, and one of the purest form of fortitude that Milton explores in Paradise Lost. When God asks the angels who will sacrifice themselves in order to become fully human and die for the sins of mankind, “all the Heavn’ly choir stood mute” (III. 217), except for Christ, who volunteers to take on the burden. Christ steps up to take the wrath of God and sacrifice himself in order to restore justice to the Earth, not out of force but by the power of his own free will, and to better the lives of humankind. When the Son says, “I for his sake will leave/ Thy bosom and this glory next to Thee” (III. 238-239), Milton is underlining the selflessness of the Son’s fortitude. When compared to the rage-driven fortitude of Satan in book one, the virtue of Christ’s fortitude becomes especially apparent. The Son’s fortitude is a spiritual one, driven by love of other rather than love of self, which makes it all the more valuable. Rather than being courageous for self-serving reasons like Satan when he goes on a solo journey, the Son sacrifices any consideration of himself for the sake of mankind. Christ is letting go of his own personal glory to serve, meanwhile Satan is trying to remain in glory after falling.
To further undermine Satan’s virtues, Milton gives readers another example of pure fortitude through Adam, in book ten. After sinning, Adam contemplates suicide because of the despair and guilt he feels for disobeying God and the turmoil this disobedience has caused in the universe. Adam is conflicted because he wants death in order to escape the punishment of God, and yet he knows this is wrong. It would be easy for Adam to end his own life and he says: “how gladly would I meet/ Mortality my sentence and be earth/ Insensible, how glad would lay me down/ As in my mother’s lap!” (10. 775-778). A sentence, as Adam references, is “to pronounce sentence upon; to condemn to a punishment” (OED) which shows how Adam knows that he will be facing God’s wrath for his crime. He would be glad to die in order to escape this sentence. However, Adam portrays true fortitude in his decision to repent and pray to God in order to earn forgiveness. His hope is restored when he and Eve decide that Christ’s punishment was merciful, and that since Christ was so forgiving they have a duty to endure. Adam says, “How much more if we pray Him will His ear/ Be open and His heart to pity incline” (X. 1060-1061), showing how Adam believes that if they persevere through the challenges the postlapsarian world offers them, they will be better off than if they end their lives despite how much harder it will be to repent. Adam exemplifies fortitude here by rejecting the easier way out of escaping God’s punishment by death, and instead decides to be courageous. In book twelve, Adam acknowledges that “suffering for Truth’s sake is fortitude to highest victory” (Milton XII, 569-570). This quote demonstrates that Adam’s courage in the face of suffering is victorious because it was for the right reasons and with the right intentions. In doing so, “(Adam) succeeds where Satan fails: in subduing wrath, grief, and despair and humbly accepting the yoke of obedience” (Schiffhorst, 16). Schiffhorst explains that Satan and Adam differ in their virtue of fortitude, because “Satan’s struggle, unlike man’s, is but a self-directed test of strength and will, not an opportunity for spiritual growth” (16), which highlights how Satan’s bravery is motivated by selfishness, and that Adam’s fortitude is motivated by sacrifice, humility and faith in God.
Many other critics have voiced their opinion on Satan and his qualities, be him friend or foe, admirable hero or wretched fiend, and many of these arguments are relevant when considering fortitude. For example, one of the most famous commentaries on Paradise Lost is C.S. Lewis’s A Preface to Paradise Lost, in which Lewis considers the mentality of Satan and how he has created his own Hell. Lewis evidently does not believe Satan exemplifies any virtues, at least not in the unironic sense, writing that, “Satan lies about every subject he mentions in Paradise Lost” (Lewis, 402), and that Satan “become(s) more a Lie than a Liar, a personified self-contradiction” (402). When considering a Satan who is a “self contradiction”, fortitude seems to be impossible; everytime Satan does something seemingly brave or virtuous, it only serves to as a juxtaposition to his true intentions or feelings. If everytime Satan opens his mouth, a lie comes out, then this further illustrates the point that Adam and Christ are the true interpretations of fortitude, while Satan acts only as an ironic perversion of this pure Christian courage. Lewis also writes that Satan has a “monomaniac concern with himself” (406), and this selfishness is yet another reason why any virtues Satan might seem to have are invalid, including fortitude. One who is motivated by selfish reason can never be truly virtuous, because even if the virtue itself is good, the intention is not.
Another famous commentary on Paradise Lost, by Balachandra Rajan, from The problem of Satan, addresses a similar problem of Satan and virtue. Rajan explores how Satan is is a falsified version of what Milton is portraying as ideal. Rajan writes, “the heroic qualities which Satan brings to his mission, the fortitude, the steadfast hate, the implacable resolution which is founded on despair are qualities not to be imitated or admired. They are defiled by the evil to which they are consecrated” (Rajan, 408). Rajan is arguing that despite the fact that Satan may, at times, represent the virtue of fortitude amongst others, it is immediately undermined because of Satan’s character and the theological foreknowledge readers are expected to have of his character. Rajan reiterates that any admiration readers feel for Satan’s qualities “are meant to be controlled by this sort of moral reaction” (409) that comes to “those who were brought up to think of (Satan) as the first liar” (409). Considering both these arguments from Lewis and Rajan, it is evident that any representation of Satan as possessing heroic virtues is only a technique implemented by Milton to undermine this type of false heroism and highlight the truly virtuous characters of Christ and Adam.
John Milton’s Paradise Lost has sparked numerous amounts of conversation and opinion both in and out of the academic sphere, with people all over the world dedicating entire careers to studying his literature. With the incorporation of Christian theology as well as classical antiquity, Milton’s Paradise Lost is a complex and beautiful epic narrative that has thus far outlived the test of time and will continue to do so. Satan, as a hallmark of Milton's literary brilliance, serves as the perversion of the ideal form that Christ represents. Milton illustrates that while it may appear as though Satan is virtuous, all of his virtues are meant to be interpreted as illegitimate because of both his intentions and his morality, or lack thereof. Ultimately, through fortitude, Milton is able to highlight for readers both the faults of Satan’s character, as well as demonstrate the aspects of the ideal Christian through his characterization of the virtuous Christ and Adam.