The cognitive approach is centred on investigating how our internal mental processes affect the way we behave. The approach likens the workings of our mind to a computer. The input is what our senses pick up about stimulus in the world, this information is then relayed into our brain. Here it is further processed by using our cognition of perception, attention, language, memory and thinking. We then respond to the stimulus in terms of our behaviour or output. Memory and thinking are then mediational processes that come between stimulus and response. As a consequence, the cognitive approach believes we are active processors of information. The approach believes that humans should be studied scientifically.
A schema is a cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain. A schema develops through our own personal experiences. Schemas provide ‘shortcuts’ when encountering something new and help with interpreting the huge amount of information we deal with on a daily basis. However, schemas can also cause us to exclude anything that does not conform to our established ideas about the world, focusing instead on things that confirm our pre-existing belief and ideas. This can lead us to develop stereotypes that are difficult to disconfirm, even when faced with new information that conflicts our pre-existing beliefs.
Bartlett (1932) carried out a study where English participants were asked to read a Native American folklore tale (war of the ghosts). It was a very culturally specific story, with unfamiliar names and references. The participants were asked to recall the story after different lengths of time. On recalling the story, it remained effectively the same. However, participants changed the names to Western names as well as the place references. It became noticeably shorter for each reproduction. Bartlett concluded that remembering is an active process and memories are not copies of experience but rather ”reconstructions” and can be changed to fit in with what we expect to happen based on our knowledge and experiences (schemas). One limitation of the study is that it was performed in a laboratory and can be therefore be criticized for a lack of ecological validity. Additionally, Bartlett did not carry out his study scientifically as he did not follow standardised procedure and had no proper empirical system and so his findings were subjective. A strength of the study is that the results confirm the schema theory.
Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. It combines cognitive psychology and neuroscience to map brain areas to specific cognitive functions. This has developed through the advancement in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans which allow scientist to observe the function of the brain whilst certain tasks and thoughts are taking place.
fMRI stands for functional magnetic resonance imaging. It indirectly measures the electrical activity of neurons by observing changes in the blood flow. These changes are because of neural activity in the brain. When an area is more active it needs more oxygen which means more blood is directed to the active area. One strength of fMRIs is that it is a non-invasive procedure. It produces 3D images which have high spatial resolution enabling more efficient localisation. One limitation of fMRIs is that they are expensive. Another is that the person must stay completely still for it to capture a clear image.
PET scan stands for Positron emission tomography. It measures the levels of glucose in the brain in order to illustrate (produce an image) where neural firing is taking place. This works because active neurons use glucose as fuel. A strength of PET scans is that they are reliable and replicable and therefore scientifically valid. Another strength is that they can be used in some forms of medical diagnosis, including for Alzheimer’s. A limitation of PET scans, however, is that we can only locate generalized areas of brain activity and not specific locations. Another limitation is that they are also costly and invasive.
One way to study the internal processes is through the use of theoretical models. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed the Multi-Store Model of memory (MSM), which describes the flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). The idea is that information is detected by the sensory organs and enters the sensory memory. If paid attention to this information enters the short-term memory. Information from the short-term memory is then transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed. If maintenance rehearsal does not occur, then information is forgotten and lost from short-term memory through the processes of decay. One strength of the multistore model is that provides a good understanding of the structure and process of the STM. This is good as it allows researchers to expand on this model and do further experiments to improve on this model and make it more valid. A limitation of the model is that it is over-simplified, as evidence suggests that there are multiple short and long-term memory stores, for example, long-term memory can be split into Episodic, Procedural and Semantic memory.
Clive Wearing received brain damage to his hippocampus after a viral infection. As a result, he suffers from clinical amnesia as he has an impaired STM. This is shown as his STM lasts between 7 to 30 seconds when an average person can remember 18-30 seconds of information. In addition, Wearing is unable to rehearse new information as he ‘loses’ the sentence he is in and is unable to remember the question when giving an answer. Wearing has not been able to transfer any new LTMs since his illness occurred. Furthermore, Wearing has difficulty retrieving his existing LTMs as he is unable to distinguish between the tastes of foods. This case study demonstrates how the Short-term memory and long-term memory are different stores as one store is more impaired than the other illustrating that these, therefore, must be independent of one another. The Multi-Store Model can be applied to his case because it suggests an inability to rehearse information into LTM.
One type of model is the computer model, which represents the mind as processing information in the same way as a computer. These models use the concept of a central processing unit (the brain), the concept of coding (to turn the information into a usable format) and the use of stores to hold information. One strength of the computer model is that it has proved useful in the development of artificial intelligence. One negative of the model is that computers do not have consciousness whereas humans do. Another is that humans do not behave in predictable ways, unlike computers.
Many of the cognitive theories are conducted laboratory which is a stud in a controlled and artificial environment. This makes them easy to replicate as they use a standardised procedure, this is a strength as it means that researchers may find similar results providing the theories with validity. A limitation of conducting theories in a laboratory is that due to the environments artificiality there is a risk of demand characteristics which makes the results less reliable.