Throughout the history of Islam, there have been many transitions between different groups over religious and political power. Beginning at the death of the prophet, there were many disagreements about who would succeed him. These disagreements led to a split in the Muslim belief that would affect the religious and political rule for years to come. One group that was able to ascend to power after the death of the prophet were the Umayyads. During their reign, the Muslim community saw many political, social and cultural changes. Politically, they were able to expand their territory across three continents, thus allowing them to spread their beliefs. However, this caused social tensions between the classes after they changed some of their old customs. At the same time they were able to bring the religious community closer together with the emergence of new structures that provide sanctuary for people to pray. The Umayyads dynasty can be marked by the political, social and cultural changes that paved the way towards the success of the Islamic culture.
The Umayyads were the second of the major caliphates that were established after the death of Muhammad. The rule of the Umayyads was known for their continuous effort to spread the Muslim faith. The transition of power began when the Umayyads emerged after the collapse of the Rashidun dynasty. However, this transition of power did not come easily as there were many disagreements about religious and political authority. These disagreements were a part of the major schism between the Sunni and Shia. The followers of the Umayyads were the Sunni, who were centralized in Mecca. While the Sunni believed that Abu Bakr was the true successor; the Shi’a believed it to be Ali that would succeed Muhammad. However, it was Abu Bakr, who was able to ascend to power.
“The selection of Abu Bakr was not bound to any particular stipulation of Muhammad’s authority, the Quran, or the Hadith but was a designation framed primarily within tribal rivalries as well as affiliations.”. Bakr can be attributed with planting the seeds of democracy in Islam. This started with the practice of the caliph being chosen based on his attributes by his peers rather than having relation to the prophet. Upon his death, he named his successor, Umar Ibn Khattab, who would lead the Muslims during the Umayyad dynasty. Similar to Abu Bakr, Umar was gained power because it was given to him. It was not because he held relation to Muhammad. While Umar led many campaigns that paved the way to progress in Islam, his most significant one was the conquest of Damascus. Damascus would later prove to be a trademark advancement of the Umayyad dynasty. “Umar was a great conqueror. He was a great administrator. Yet, it must be remembered, he was in so sense a king. In the truest sense if the word he was the Caliph i.e., a successor of the prophet. To faithfully walk in his Master’s footsteps, that was his sole anxiety”.
During the rule of the Umayyads, there was a shift from the small communities that had been seen before to the now complex monarchs that ruled. This was done through the conquest of territory. From a military standpoint, the Syrian army was the basis of the Umayyad strength when it came to conquering other territories. They the enabled them to create a stronger empire and they expanded more than they ever had before. Soon, Islam had expanded over three continents; including Africa, Asia, and Europe. Garrison cities were founded in order to male the expansion easier on the troops. However, one of the areas which they had failed to obtain for themselves was Istanbul. Their unsuccessful attempt to procure it led to the secular image of the state because they were directed towards the Christians. Another region that the Umayyads were unable to have full control of was the Sahara, but they were able to get the Berber tribe to pay acknowledgment to the Caliph. The territorial acquisitions that were made proved to change the course of Islamic history. With the new territory, came new tribes who embraced Islamic culture. Although the Berber tribe had resisted Arab rule at first, later willingly embraced Islam and joined the Arab army as they came their way across the Strait of Gibraltar to Spain. The Berbers also led reform movements in North Africa that spread the influence of Islam. In addition, the acquisition of territory in India provided Islam with literature and science that improved Islamic culture.
The decline of the army began with the defeat by the Byzantines. They were able to continue expansion after the defeat but at slower rates than they had before. It was around this time they had reached the limits of how far they could expand. Revolts led by the Qays and the Kalbs made it more difficult to hold the empire together. In addition, the Mawali began working with the Hashimiyyah, who were a a group that denied the legitimacy of the Umayyad rule. Together, they were able to remove the Umayyads from power and in their place was Abbasids began their reign. Once they lost power, many of the Umayyad household were killed. However, Abd al-Rahman was able to escape and later established himself as a muslim ruler in Spain, were the Umayyads rule continued in Cordoba. While the rule of the Umayyads had come to an end in Islam, the effects of the military expansion had an immense impact of the way that they were able to expand their influence and belief.
Many of the places that they conquered were able to keep their autonomy, but many of their judicial issues were allocated by the Umayyads. This was to make sure that they were still living in accordance with the Muslim laws. In addition, an extensive program of Arabization was put in place with the purposes of making Arabic the official state language and altering the financial administration of the empire. A new arabic coinage system replaced the former system that was provided by the Byzantines. In addition, it was also important for the growing empire to improve communications in order to keep the empire closer together. Therefore, a post service was introduced in Damascus, and expanded to the provincial capitals. Overtime, as they expanded; reforms were made in the way that their politics were conducted as well as who was able to hold position. For a long time, it was seen that the duty of the caliphs were to be leaders in politics and military, as well as having the responsibility to preserve the religious community. However, it can be seen that the caliph was becoming more of an influence in politics than it originally had been.
Contraversally, the Umayyads had begun to separate politics from the Muslim community, and make their political system into a more organized government structure. In contrast to leaders in the past being related to the prophet; they were now people of ordinary status by comparison. This came from the foundation of democracy that laid down by Abu Bakr. While people of all ethnicities and religions had once been able to hold positions; gradually over the years, non-muslims were replaced in office as well as the military. Their influence of government came from their powerful neighbors, the Byzantines and the Persians. During this time they also made the decision to move their administrative center from Medina to Damascus in Syria. This allowed for them to be closer to the Byzantines, who were then appointed as administrators and counselors. This later proved to ensure the survival of the new faith during their rule in Spain later on. However, the political changes made by the Umayyads would lead to disdain in the community that also held social unrest.
The attention of the caliph was drawn to the growing empire at the expense of the religious concerns that were occuring at the time. While attention was drawn away, religion was not an abandoned responsibility of the caliph. As it can be seen in this time period, many secular issues arose with the expansion of the empire. During the reign of Muawiyah these issues was the main concern. While he was once known as “Defender of the Faith”, his role had switched to keeping the peace, so that he could keep in power. Muawiyah had once described himself as “I apply not my sword where my lash suffices, nor my lash where my tongue is enough. And even if there be one hair binding me to my fellow men, I do not let it break: when they pull I loosen, and if they loosen I pull”. He took great care in the issues that were placed before him, never going beyond what was needed from him. However, his efforts were never able to appease the unrest that people had from his rule. While they continued with the belief that the caliph should be chosen by his peers, struggle over power remained a common theme even through the Umayyad Dynasty as the caliph position could never be agreed upon.
In the year 680, a civil war had commenced as the result of the death of Mu'awiya and the secession of his son, Yazid. This war was the first time in years that the Umayyads were at risk of losing their power. While trying to enforce his authority on the people; he had killed Ali’s son, Husayn at the battle of Karbala. Having been enraged by this act, the people of Medina decided to revolt, but were soon put down by the forces of Yazid. Yazid died during a siege of Mecca, as well as his son Mu’awiya; which led to a struggle for power among tribes in Syria. The Qays and the Kalb fought for their chosen candidates to be the caliph, thus causing a war to emerge. The campaign with Marwan ibn al-Hakam founding the new Umayyad dynasty. When he died only a year later, his campaign was taken over by his no Abd al-Malik. Abd al-Malik was able to solidify the Umayyad dynasty by defeating his competing campaigner, Ibn al-Zubayr at Mecca. Upon his victory, he destroyed Mecca and Kaaba. While the Umayyads had won their battle here, the Shi’a and Kharijites would remain powerful enemies for years to come.
While religion arguably became a backseat to political changes, it did not disappear altogether. The people who followed the Muslim belief still followed the code of doing what God wanted them to do. In their eyes everything else around them was insignificant when it came to following the word of God. They belief was powerful enough that they could not be swayed by worldly riches or even the unrighteous temptations of their loved ones. Religious belief proved to a powerful ally to the expanding Umayyad empire. Their belief often helped carry them through battle as they found themselves to be outnumbered. “Their lives were a practical commentary on the Quranic verse: “How often has a small party vanquished a numerous host by Allah’s permission”. They demonstrated that success depends neither on numbers, nor provisions, but on the strength oh heart born of a firm faith in God”. In addition, Muslim belief brought the empire closer together as new territories were acquired. When people were able to live under the same way of life and code; their difference were minimized, thus minimizing the amount of revolts that occurred.
As Islam expanded; so did the Muslim belief. However, the Umayyads didn’t force their beliefs on those they conquered. They sought to treat non-muslims better than they had been treated in the past. Many Jews and Christians were allowed to continue practicing their religions. In addition, some of them were appointed positions in finance, taxation, commerce and trade departments as they were seen to be more trustworthy than the Muslims. Zakat money was raised from Muslims and it was then given to poor christians. “Once, the Caliph saw an old christian begging for alms. He was not only exempted from the jizyah but was also awarded a subsistence allowance from the treasury. General orders were then issued that old age pensions must be granted to all the old people among the non-muslim subjects, who must also be exempt from jizyah”. However, on the other side, Muslims were forced to pay a higher rate of tax, zakat, and at the same time were required to provide military service from which the non-muslims were exempt. The unequal treatment between the two groups led to social unrest until the roles were switched upon the accession of Umar II.
Under the rule of Umar II, restrictions were put down that prevented them from having true freedom in practicing their religion. A special tax was placed on those who did not practice Muslim beliefs, thus allowing the Umayyads to subsidize their expansion. While Muhammad had once stated that each religion should be able to continue its own practice and govern itself; the Muslims did not make it easy for them to do so. However, as conquest slowed the tension between the rich and poor increased. As the empire grew, it became more diverse and was more difficult to hold together. The Arab hierarchy had emerged in this time, making it so that they were on top, while non-Arabs had secondary status. This contradicted the Quran which had said Arabs were not above non-Arabs and vice versa. “From now on, ‘Arab’ became a designation for a party within the Islamic community and could be used by groups dissatisfied with their position. This meant that it to spread and was used by other groups as well, and it was gradually transformed into a status term”. There was also disdain in the way that those in power had begun to conduct themselves. The establishment of wealthy and monarachial features was seen as a distortment of the religious and social principles of Islam, thus adding to the discontentment of the people.
The Umayyad dynasty was also know to have made new contributions to the growth of Islamic culture. One area that they began to advance in was art. While the had once followed more formal methods of achieving art; they moved on to develop different techniques and forms of art. They were able to do this by means of new artistic expression. While they did follow new ways of expressing themselves, they still maintained the rules that were established when it came to art. For example, it is against their law to create any image of man or animal. They had the common belief that the creation of living forms is uniquely created by god. Therefore, it is controversial for images and image makers to do what he does. They are also prohibited from creating an image for god because it is believed that he has no real image. However, this did not impede the advancement of art during the Umayyad Dynasty. Many of the major projects that were exhibited from this time period came from the decoration of mosques. The need for places of religious worship had grown immensely. Therefore, artists were tasked with decorating the places where the people could come and pray. However, because Islam was still a relatively new religion, artists had not developed a vocabulary for their techniques. Their styling was mostly reliant on their geometric designs and patterns that could be seen in mosaics. Their art styles were often taken from others such as the Byzantines who inspired naturalistic mosaics. However, they were still able to bring their own culture into the designs, thus staying true to their own belief.
Along with the arts, the Umayyads had also made new advancements in the architectural area. With the birth of new religions and customs, Arab rulers found a growing need for new spaces that could supply the needs of religious practices. The first of the many new structures to be built was the Dome of the Rock, which was located in Jerusalem. It was built in support of the caliph Abd al-Malik.The dome is said to have been the place where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven. The dome is 65 feet in dismayed and is raised above a circle of 16 piers and columns. Both the interior and exterior are decorated with marble, mosaics and metal plaques. These mosaics are forbidden to include any representations of human or animal forms. This is because there is a common belief that there can not be a form idealistic form of god. Instead, the mosaics showcase Arabic script and patterns mixed with items such as jewels. The original purpose of the Dome are uncertain to this day. The building does not fit the criteria of any Muslim religious structures. The most popular theory is that it was used as a substitute for of the Muslim hajj from Mecca while under the control of rebels.
Others buildings that was significant to the advancement of the Umayyads were the mosques. For example, the mosque in Medina, was rebuilt where the prophet had once lived. In 707 the caliph, al-Walid, tore down the old structure that once belonged to the prophet and rebuilt a larger one. The larger Mosque now included a house and tomb for the prophet, thus making it one of the three holiest places in Islam. With a strong foundation of stone, the structure was supported by stone columns and decorated with mosaics. The mosque had many functions, including personal and collective prayer, religious education, political meetings, administration of justice. It was also a place of sanctuary for the ill and the homeless. This structure later became an important model for other Islamic architecture. In addition to the Prophet’s Mosque, the Mosque of Damascus is one of the largest and oldest in the world. It was built over a church that muslims had once shared with christians until space and structure proved to be inadequate for the two to share. Once it was fully controlled under the Umayyads, the structure was demolished and replaced with the current mosque that stands in its place. The Mosque of Damascus was based on the Prophet’s Mosque. It had a similar structure, therefore also having many of the same functions. The Mosque of Damascus has a prayer hall that provided three columns of space for people to come and pray either on their own an in groups. The significance of these structures can still be seen today as they provide sanctuary for those in the Muslim belief, as well as standing as a model for Islamic architecture.
The legacy that the Umayyad dynasty has left on Islamic history was significant for them politically, socially and culturally. Upon their rise to power they sought to expand the muslim belief by means of conquest over other territories. The conquest of these territories gave them access to groups who were willing to follow their belief as well as providing influence to their culture and political system. However, it was seen later on that their effort to spread their belief was for naught when they broke off political authority from the religious community. However, religion still played an active role in the community, although minimized since the emergence of the prophet. Even so, their religious community was brought closer together by the emergence of new mosques where people could come together and pray. The change in the political system as well social hierarchy led to much disdain among the people. The battle of Karbala led to further schism between the different groups who sought to rise to power. While the Umayyads were able to solidify their power for a period of time; the division among the non-arabs and competing groups from the political system led to their demise. Upon their fall from power, the Abbasids rose and began their rule as the next caliph.