Murder is a very public criminal behavior. However, the complexity of this criminal behavior comes from the vast scale from who commits it, why they do it and how to stop it from being committed. "Homicide rates in the United States remain among the highest in the Western World. Homicide offenders tend to be also recidivist offenders, often not necessarily regarding homicide reoffending but in terms of general delinquent recidivism” (Loeber & Ahonen, 2013). People from all walks of life are a part of this criminal behavior, from rich to poor, from white to black, from male and female to old and young. Murder is broken down into two categories, first-degree murder, and second-degree murder. “First degree is a homicide that was committed with particularly vicious, willful, deliberate, and premeditated intent. Murder of the second degree is characterized by the intentional and unlawful killing of another but without the type of malice and premeditation required for first-degree murder” (Bartol & Bartol, 2010). The different types of murders and their aggravating factor, the intensity of their action, determine their penalty. Second-degree murder penalties tend to be lesser or not as harsh as the penalties for first-degree murders but keep in mind that the courts take in to count the aggravating factors. In some states, due to the sentencing structure, they can get a range of years, and some get the possibility of parole. When given lesser sentencing, it is because there were no aggravating factors (killing during another violent crime, defendant laid in wait, poisoning victim, and so on.) involved (First Degree Murder Penalties and Sentencing, 2014). Moreover, when sentencing Second Degree murders, just like First Degree murders, aggravated factors are considered (Second Degree Murder Penalties and Sentencing, 2014).
Etiology theories can help us better understand why a criminal behavior, murder, is committed. I believe biological factors, sociological factors, as well as, learning theories, all relate to the criminal act of murder.
Biological Factors:
Biological factors can be neurobiological or even genetic. There is always the question of, “Are criminals born or made?”, So biological factors tend to explain some people are born more susceptible to become a criminal. Brain chemicals known as neurotransmitters may mediate the most basic neurobiological mechanisms of violence. An excess or deficiency of these various brain chemicals influences behavior in a variety of ways, including an increased propensity toward violent behavior. More specifically, aggression has been found to be the direct result of low levels of serotonin and high levels of testosterone (Montoya, Terburg, Bos, & Honk, 2011). These violent mechanisms attribute to aggressive behavior that can and have resulted in murder. Testosterone levels are naturally higher in males than females, and when looking at the aggression of the men to females, you can see that males tend to be more aggressive than women. This goes to another level when males and female rates of being murderers are compared. Male homicides rate for 2013 was 5,058 while the female murder total was 563. There is a significant difference in homicides when comparing the sex of the offender. In 2013 there were a total of 14,132 murder offenders. 9,085 were male, 1,085 were female, and the rest were unknown (Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI], 2013).
The amygdala is the part of the brain that controls the balance of a person’s emotions and the hippocampus that is connected with memory. These parts of the brain contribute to violent behavior when either is stimulated. Other neuropsychological mechanisms and problems have also been related to aggressive behavior. Frontal lobe syndromes have been long researched by neuropsychologists to better understand and recognize the organic causes of criminal behavior and disinhibition. Damage to or a lesion in a part of the brain known as the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), which is the prefrontal cortex region of the brain (or the ventromedial cortex [VC]), can cause an individual to be more prone to display impulsive forms of aggression in the context of provocation (Denney & Sullivan, 2008). Murder is a criminal behavior that can be triggered by these biological factors. Homicide/ Murder offenders act out due to aggression. These biological factors can contribute to the severity of aggression these offenders use when committing the crime. Biological factors impact the selected behavior of homicide/murder.
Sociological Factors:
Sociological Factors have an evident effect on murder. Poverty, lack of education, “nothing to lose” mindset, substance abuse and environment are key players for people who commit homicide. Whites and blacks are often compared with murder because they are the majority of the population as well as they are viewed to be on different ends of the spectrum in society, although they do overlap. “The results show that where residential segregation is higher, and where whites’ levels of homeownership, median income, college graduation, and professional workers exceed those for blacks to a greater degree, African Americans have much higher levels of homicide offending than whites. The homicide gap is not only due to levels of black social conditions alone; levels of black disadvantage and resources have only modest associations with the racial gap in killings (Velez, Kriyo & Peterson, 2003). These disadvantages cause for specific populations such as the black community, to have higher rates of homicide.
“Poverty refers to a situation in which the basic resources to maintain an average standard of living within a specific geographic region are lacking. This typically includes the absence of sufficient income to meet basic necessities of life” (Bartol & Bartol, 2010). Poverty increases the chances of criminal behavior. For example, a person who lives in poverty may commit robbery. They may have set out, but the theft could have ended up in a homicide. This homicide could be viewed as second-degree murder, which was mentioned earlier. Not having what you need to survive, can make it an easier decision to commit a crime. The increasing number of homicides make researchers think social backgrounds relate most often to sociopathy and the lack of social adaptation of murderers and their victims (Rygol, Chowaniec, Kobek & Chowaniec, 2005).
Lack of education can lead to a word of chaos. When individuals are uneducated, or their parents aren’t educated, they can be forced to figure out ways on their own in which to make it in the world. Parents who are undereducated tend to be more violent when they raise children because they may be in a stressful environment. Parenting can go by the waist side because parents may need to work more than one job to provide financially or parents may neglect their parenting duties or parent with a more violent approach because it is quicker and easier than talking and understanding a child. In other words, when a person is not educated it is hard for them to find a good job, be able to own their own property/ businesses, or do other things that people with a good education and knowledge would be able to do. Some people struggle in and as a result, deal with peer pressure and sometimes bullying.” About 7 million youth are particularly vulnerable to delinquency, gang activity, criminal activities, and violence” (Bartol & Bartol, 2010). When these youth resorts to violence and the streets, homicide has a great chance at being a part of their futures, whether they are the victims or the offenders. Being associated with a gang is very popular when looking at a lot of homicides/ murders that are committed. “Most homicides were ‘street homicides’ and very few involved relatives, or children as victims. Moreover, most of the homicides were committed by individuals who were violence-prone and had a long history of disruptive and delinquent behavior” (Loeber &Ahonen, 2013). This makes it evident that social factors play a considerable role in murder.
Learning Theories:
B. F. Skinner, a well-known behaviorist, asserts that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with one’s environment. He theorized that behavior is maintained as well as strengthened due to the reinforcements secondary to the criminal behavior through a process of conditioning (Learning Theories, 2015). Murder can be related to the Theory of Behavior for the simple fact of a person growing up in an environment where crime, Murder, is something that they see often. If a person sees people being killed and people getting away with it, this can become a conditioning process. According to Skinner, to understand the development of delinquency and criminal behavior, we must focus on environmental stimuli, observable behavior, and rewards (Bartol & Bartol, 2010). There are so many murders that go unsolved which means; many people get away with murder. When someone grows up in this type of environment and does not correlate punishment to criminal behavior, murder, it is more likely for them to commit it because they see reward versus punishment. This is like the dog and saliva experiment. Skinner’s conditioning theory also applies to murder because some people are conditioned to reacting with killing one another, for example, gangs, drug dealers, robbers… Some humans have been conditioned to think that murdering a person can and is the way to solve a problem, because of operant conditioning.
Expectancy Theory is another theory that homicide/murder can be related to. This theory stands on a person’s actions being based on the expected outcome of their behavior. This contributes to people killing people in the middle of a robbery, gang members killing people and even when people kill the person they are in a relationship with. Julian “Rotter’s theory to criminal behavior, we would say that when people engage in unlawful conduct, they expect to gain something in the form of status, power, security, affection, material goods, or living conditions. The violent person, for example, may elect to behave that way in the belief that something will be gained; the serial murderer might believe that God has sent him on a mission to eliminate all “loose” women, and thus by doing so he pleases God; the woman who poisons an abusive husband looks for an improvement in her life situation” (Bartol & Bartol, 2010). As stated previously, most people murder because of the outcome they have seen before. They also commit murder because they think it is the most effective behavior for their situation. The Expectancy Theory answers many etiologies for murder. This theory shows and explains that a person may murder for gain or simply because they feel they can be successful with their actions because it has been done in the past. All in all, people “people enter situations with generalized expectancies about the outcomes of their behavior is an important one for students of crime” (Bartol & Bartol, 2010).
Prevention, intervention, and treatment for homicides/ murders are constantly updated and revised. Law enforcement along with those in the communities often work together to help deter murder. Prevention, intervention, and treatment are the keys to cracking down on homicides/ murders. Prevention is mostly put in the hands of the law and law enforcement officers. “Some have suggested criminal justice policies such as increased incarceration and proactive policing” are great methods of preventing murders (McGarrell et al., 2006). Other forms of prevention include hotspot policing, physical changes in hotspot environments, protecting repeat victims and families, conflict resolution and targeting enforcement efforts on prominent gang figures (Miller & Hendricks, 2007). Early prevention can reduce the likelihood of people committing homicide.
A lot of intervention for homicides are focused on gangs and drug dealing. They focus on these groups because they are the causes of many murders. Gangs and drug dealing are high-risk criminal behaviors and are prone to violent and deadly behaviors. Interventions such as “improving education, mentoring, mental help services and skills training in facilities” can help treat individuals and lessen their probability to commit the same crime again, including in prison. A well-known criminal justice intervention is the “lever pulling” strategy. This is where meetings take place that deter continued gang violence and other violent or criminal activity going on. Project Ceasefire is another successful project that has made a huge difference in homicide/murder rates in certain communities. “The meetings were coupled with crackdowns” (McGarrell et al., 2007). These groups are serious about reducing violence, including the violence that often times result in murder.
Lastly, treatment varies from person to person. Some treatments take place within the prisons, and others take place in hospitals where people are being treated for mental disorders such as psychosis. “In fact, most studies reported that about four in ten patients had not been treated prior to the homicide (for psychosis) and that there is a dramatic decline in the risk of homicide after treatment of psychosis” (Large & Nielssen, 2007). Mental disorders are a factor when it comes to psychosis. When detected early, treatment for these individuals can stop murders from being committed. Another factor of treatment for murderers is if they want to be treated. How can you help someone who does not want to be helped? When incarcerated for murder and these inmates are facing life or death sentences, they sometimes do not have a will to life or regard for their or others’ lives. Treatment efforts for murder include group counseling, medication, and even small group discussions. Treatment for murder can be effective if the criminal wants to get better and makes an effort to do so. A lot of treatments takes place within the prison system for murderers simply because of the sentencing or penalty for the crime.