The concept of Olympism was created by Coubertin. The nature and goal of Olympism are interpreted on the Olympic charter (1997) as ‘a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole, the qualities of body, will and mind’. It also looked to blend sport with culture and education, contributing to a better world without discrimination, promoting values as fair play and solidarity. Even though some definitions of its goals can be found in the Olympic charter, Hsu points out that a universally acceptable definition of Olympism does not exist, due to no efforts made by its founders to define it, being left relatively open to interpretation.
This subject does not suffer from a lack of information in terms scholarly work of the cultural history of the Olympics. I do feel however, that the available information on the IOC as an organization could be developed and further researched, as their operations remain slightly in the shadows. This might be due to its global influence and therefore avoiding any risk of the organization being jeopardized, protecting the organization and hence defending its principles for the future.
The main purpose for this literature review is to reveal and critically analyze the prior studies concerning the historic relationship between culture and the Olympic Games and whether that relationship has enriched the symbol of Olympism to the present day. It also highlights literatures from varying perspectives concerning the cultural impacts on the host city.
Pop recognized that the impact of the event is represented by a paradigm of urban anthropology, of which is a continually developing field as cities enlarge and hence, are increasing issues concerning urbanization, poverty, urban space, social relations and neoliberalism.
Christiana Pop divides his report into three sections. The first, concerns the symbols and rituals associated with the Olympics, exploring the cultural meaning associated with the Games such as peace, fraternity and honest. Secondly, he highlights the main contributors of globalization and discusses the symbolism of sport. The Olympic committee’s chancellor also promoted this idea of Olympic Movement and Globalization, stating that ‘The Olympic Games are competitions between athletes and teams, not between countries.’ Finally, he explores and reveals in further detail the modern Olympic games. With these studies, he looks to explain the interconnection between culture and the modern Olympic Games in a globalized historical context.
Boukas’ study examines the effects of the Olympic Games on Athens regarding to cultural tourism. He focuses on the cultural aspect whereby a qualitative and interpretive approach is undertaken. Sources collected are official and the analysis includes the process of carrying out five semi-structured interviews with tourism/administrative officials, validating the article even further.
Boukas states the Games extend beyond sport, making changes in the material and social infrastructure, and the culture, which leads to a transformation of the urban order. He affirms that local identities and cultural heritage of host cities are re-shaped whilst the games take place, taking ‘new identities as citizens of the world.’
Athens, 2004 is an example of the Olympics being used as a cultural product for leverage in the development of a nation. It symbolised the urban historic preservation converged with innovative designs, yielding a ‘glocalised’ urban landscape. In addition to this, he highlights the symbolic significance of the city’s intangible heritage, establishing continuity from the past and synchronizing it with the present, aiding to enhance and preserve the cultural historic heritage and meaning of Olympism deriving from as far back as the bronze age.
According to Essex and Chalkley there is an abundance of literature concerning the idea of promoting urban development and change through the hosting of major events, offering ‘fast track’ urban regeneration. A stimulus for economic growth, improved transport and cultural facilities and enhanced global recognition.
The citizens were not content with the lost opportunities of post-Olympic Greece, as the lack of long-term sustainable planning and an assurance in return of their investment, impacted significantly on the country’s economic crisis.(boukas) Although the Games legacy has been significantly altered in line with the economic crisis, it is widely recognized that the Olympic legacy contributed to the revitalization of the city’s heritage, identity and sense of place. Stephen and Chalkley affirm that the urban historic preservation led to the ‘glocalisation’ (similarly mentioned by Boukas) of urban landscapes encompassing a unique ‘spirituality’ that makes Athens distinctive across the globe.’
The Olympics in 2004, Athens resulted in a cluster of books and studies relating to the first modern Olympics in 1896 expressing the significance of the Games in its sacred place and its movement playing a revolutionary role in a world that’s continually conflicted but enables a global captivating audience rooted from a rich cultural heritage.
Miller Stephen G, says that in the last three decades there have been extensive publications on various aspects of Greek athletics. He makes a very historically knowledgeable account of the Ancient Greek Athletics in a broad view of ancient society, offering an overview of the highly competitive world of ancient Greek athletics. From his work, we can have a better understanding of the role the ancient Greek athletics played in society and compare it to the present.
His approach is organically driven and allows the Greeks to talk for themselves,’ using sources that include words and artifacts that have been preserved from antiquity. He also explores the agonistic spirit of the Greeks and its fundamental cultural notion of areté, meaning excellence, enriching Greek history in revelation of the viscous and violent culture from the bronze ages.
A similar book written by Judith Swaddling, focuses on the site of Olympia and the Olympic Games. She mentions that Coubertin, who re-birthed the Olympics, admired the emphasis on British education, particularly intellectual training and sporting disciplines. After the Games became professionalized, various attempts to corrupt them have been attempted for instance doping scandals and other ways promoting a ‘win-at-all-cost’ idea. This, on top of the violence such as boycotting or terrorism, reflects some negative aspects of holding the Games. Swaddling discusses the honor and praise one would feel in the monumental temple of Zeus, and Miller reveals that they were rewarded a whole lot more than a wreath of olives from their home towns. Even to this day Olympians are not rewarded much, promoting the idea of Olympism as a symbolizing movement.
Nigel Spivey says, ‘Some modern sociologists would say that sport essentially functions as a sublimation or repression of violence.’ In antiquity, there’s no such theorizing, but evidence traces back to the original purpose of the ancient Greek athletics as the enactment of violence. Spivey goes on to admirably portray the world of the gymnasium as the Greeks called it. He explains ‘This shows us athletics as part of the daily routines of the ‘care of the self (washing, sex, and sleep). Strenuous exercise wasn’t only prescribed as a civic duty; the well exercised body also became the subject of erotic and aesthetic interest, combining to shape the classical definition of kalokagathia ‘beautiful goodness.’
The phrase ‘war minus the shooting’ was popularized in the last century by Konrad Lorenz and Desmond Morris. The phrase acts as a sentiment that ‘sport is ultimately a subliminal form of human aggression. A channeling of the biological instinct to fight’ (Spivey)
In this respect, athletics is highly conceived as an art; back then and still, to this day. During the time of which the Olympics were revived by Coubertin, they were done so in a time of great cultural effervescence and a time of revolutionary transformative art.
Pop explains that Paris (the art capital of the world) posed struggle for reforming geniuses for affirmation and recognition, a great time to revive the Olympics. The second Games took place in Paris posing as the ‘city of light’ and symbolizing ‘la belle époque,’ an era of prosperity, peace and progress, further promoting the idea of Olympism.
Although he was a visionary, according to Pop, Pierre de Coubertin believed that the Olympics should remain traditionally “a eulogy of male sport”. This reservation, however, could not prevent women from participating, and in 1900, they competed in tennis and golf. Over time, sports were no exception, women were admitted to all competition. Even today, some scholars like Hsu believe the tradition should have been upheld, abstaining women from public competitions.
Spivey’s interpretation of the Olympics is very artistically driven, fantasizing the ancient world of the gymnasium in expression of the ‘care of yourself’ aspiring to the newly found nature of ‘erotic and aesthetic interests.’ He stresses the Olympics came from a place of violence and war adding volume to our perception of the ancient culture, comparatively to this modern day. To see the Games go from such a violent nature to that of Coubertin’s Ideals in the late 19th Century, gives added value to the contemporary Games now in representation of peace and prosperity.
Avery Brundage, former IOC president (1952-1972) played a heavy role in the defense toward amateurism. His ideal of Olympism was heavily defined by preventing the use of the Games for profit, stressing that the games are not to be used as a commercial enterprise. (Brundage, 1963: 34).
Lord Killians’ personal view is that The movement has 2 responsibilities, first is the ‘development of high-performance sports, and second, the ‘promotion of sport from the schoolroom to old age.’(Killian, 1973:18-9)
More recently, scholars have many different interpretations of Olympism, but they are still all mainly based off Coubertin’s ideas. Comparatively to this modern day, the Olympics is a whole lot more to do with taking part, and being a part of the worldwide extravaganza, not about winning nor excellence. Admittedly I perceived the Olympics as less mutual than they try and pan out to be. Coubertin famously said ‘The important thing in life is not victory but struggle; the essential is not to have won but to have fought well’ (Coubertin, 1908: 19-20).
In terms of cultural heritage, Olympism is very much so, still, an Ideal to most around the globe. It hasn’t festered, nor has it been ceased, but merely altered to suit the contemporary society. Coubertin’s idea of Olympism mostly takes root from the ancient heritage Athens beholds and he adheres to the commemoration of the Olympic legacy Athens stipulated since the bronze ages. He faught for the larger ideals of Olympism and argued it was a ‘state of mind.’ He believed not one party could ever have control over Olympism and that it would forever promote peace and mutual understanding between nations. As a term one could portray Olympism as ‘all good human values towards an ideal human being.’ (TSU) The Olympic movement in my eyes, stands as a hope for future generations, and a stand for political/economical/social and in more recent decades, environmental correctness, but in no way is it a solution to resolve the issues of the world, but more of a tool in which can be used to develop recognition for a nation, therefore we acquire learning from that nations culture, and enhance relationships as nations come to know more about one another.
Self-Reflection:
This literature review has greatly endeavored my learning on the subject of the cultural history of the Olympic Games.
At first, I thought I should do a literature review on the Ancient Olympics, as this took me by interest, but I then thought that it would be a historical essay rather than a contemporary one. So I therefore thought I’d observe the Olympic movement right from the very start in Athens up until this modern day showing the comparison of the culture then and the culture now, and hence sparking interest into the reader.
Modern Olympism has changed from the ancient Olympics, and the ideals of Coubertin and other IOC presidents. Apart from the fact that some issues are no longer stressed (such as amateur status and women’s participation), we see no dramatic changes in Olympism, but the term still holds fast presenting a noble vision of true sportsmanship and achieves to relieve conflicts and increases harmony.
Due to the nature of the Olympics being heavily researched, I had spent too much time finding numerous sources and therefore ended up with masses of detailed information and although having developed my understanding and perception, at times this had added confusion to the topic. Even though I had a large A3 sheet of paper with many boxes to fit all my sources in, the template was not detailed enough to departmentalize them into specified places. I had ended up with 4,104 words in that plan, so when I came to compile my sources into relatable ones there were various linkages but there was too much information to go off.
From this review I realize that the research process is crucial in making a good one. Without having researched all areas of the topic, it wouldn’t be possible to make a comprehensive analysis.
The Olympics prove to be a very broad subject that encompasses masses of scholarly articles. In order to be within the boundaries of the word limit, I had to cut down my essay by at least half of what I had originally written, proving my plan to have been much too broad. This was due to my eagerness in compiling as much research as I could on the subject. This was all very good and well until I decided to put pen to paper as the surplus of information made it hard to find a clear direction in my review.
After my research I had a much more idealized opinion on Olympism and the Games themselves. From learning the true values of the movement and its ancient derivatives, I quickly came to learn the importance of the Olympics and how sportsmanship can tie nations together as all humans can relate in the realm of sport and health.