I. Introduction
Candide, ou l’Optimisme was first published in 1759 by Voltaire. Candide satirizes many different topics that were important in the time of Voltaire and that are still important today, from love, romance, and marriage, to authority figures and wealth. Candide’s satirical treatment of these topics that will always be relevant has helped it remain both an important and controversial piece that has been able to be adapted and interpreted many times.
One of the most famous adaptions was in 1956 as an operetta by Leonard Bernstein called Candide: Optimism. One reason that Leonard Bernstein’s adaptation was so successful and has been performed time after time since its debut is its use of song to convey commentary. Humans are naturally moved by sound because of how we associate it with emotions. A study in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America explains a universal connection between certain characteristics of music and emotions. Although it most certainly is not a concrete correlation, the study looked at college students in the United States and compared those results with people from L’ak, Cambodia, a culturally isolated society. From the overlap in results, they concluded that certain emotions are tied to specific musical elements, regardless of cultural exposure (Sievers, Polansky, Casey, & Wheatley 2013). Of course, you could go and see a comedy any time, but more likely than not, the humor will be pertinent to the era of its composition. A musical comedy on the other hand, has a more timeless and cultureless appeal, and a satire that focuses on elements of society that are destined to remain throughout time, which is also embellished with song, such as Bernstein’s adaption of Candide, is probably one of the most effective means of communication without being lost in time. Bernstein uses this everlasting appeal to his advantage when making his points, putting his most pronounced and effective satire in Candide’s songs.
Throughout Candide, Bernstein uses songs such as the aria “Glitter and be Gay” to not only expand on satire that was laid about by Voltaire in Candide, ou l’Optimisme to comment on religion, the wealthy class in society, and aria’s as an art form, but to make it more impactful for a modern audience. Besides being one of the most famous modern arias for its composition and strenuous vocal range, “Glitter and be Gay” is one of the most satire filled pieces in Candide. The satire in “Glitter and be Gay” is reflected in its presentation of characters, like Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor, its treatment of themes of love and wealth, and its very treatment of an aria, but in order to understand how Bernstein developed Voltaire’s satire, certain parts of Voltaire’s satire need to be explored.
II. The Use of Satire to Comment on Characters in Candide
The song, “Glitter and be Gay”, originates from chapter 8 of Candide, ou l’Optimisme, “Cunegonde’s Story”. The aptly named chapter outlines what happens to Cunegonde from the moment the Bulgars attacked Westphalia to Candide finding her in Paris. She begins by explaining the torturous experience of the night the Bulgars invade, and then how a Bulgar captain “rescues” her from a soldier. This is where Voltaire’s commentary begins. With a rather questionable choice of presentation, he introduces Don Issachar (Voltaire 17). Don Issachar is presented as the ultimate Jewish stereotype, from a lack of moral standings to being filthy rich. Before continuing onto the next part of her story and Voltaire’s commentary, which is about the Grand Inquisitor, it is important to talk about the portrayal of Don Issachar in order to separate the religious portrayal from how he connects to the rich of society.
Stuart Jeffries refers to Candide as one of three “leading anti-Semitic French magazines” because of Don Issachar (Jeffries). Voltaire portrays him as rich, lacking in morals, and just as a character that gives you an overall gross feeling to read about. He is the pinnacle of Jewish stereotyping. On the other hand, it is also argued that Voltaire was not being anti-Semitic at all, but rather completely parodying religious stereotypes as a whole. One Voltaire scholar, Pierre Aubrey, explained that the Jews in Voltaire’s time were generally portrayed incredibly similar to the Christians of the age in terms of their values (Scherr). If this is the case, it begs the question as to why Voltaire focuses primarily on exaggerating Don Issachar’s desire for possessions and abundance of money. For argument’s sake, let’s take inference from Aubrey’s statement that Voltaire was not an anti-Semite, but rather just parodying religion.
This brings us to the Grand Inquisitor. Looking at his character, the idea of these two religious figures being complete parody starts to become much more plausible. Cunegonde tells Candide about how she caught the Grand Inquisitor’s attention at mass, how he took a liking to her, and finally decided he wanted her for himself. The issue, she explains, is that because of how much money Don Issachar had, his social standing allowed him to decline the Grand Inquisitor’s request. This is the first mention Voltaire gives of Don Issachar’s wealth, and the beginning of a six-month battle of power between the two characters. The Grand Inquisitor threatens Don Issachar with an “auto-da-fé”, or an act of faith. Don Issachar understands the connotation behind this threat – that he will be burned alive – and compromises with the Grand Inquisitor to trade off. He feels that because of his wealth, he is still safe from harm. In the time of Candide, ou l’Optimisme, money granted high social status and power, seconded only by religious power. The following scene is much more a satirical remark on the absurdity of the power of the church, because the Grand Inquisitor becomes jealous of Don Issachar and has two other Jews burned to death in order to scare Don Issachar out of defying the deal, despite having honored their agreement for six months (Voltaire 17-18).
III. How “Glitter and be Gay” Builds on Satire from “Cunegonde’s Story”
Even though Bernstein’s adaptation of Candide, ou l’Optimisme also features the dialogue from “Cunegonde’s Story”, it uses “Glitter and be Gay” to insert missing parts of the story such as Cunegonde’s inner feelings on the situation at hand. Because the song focuses on Cunegonde’s inner thoughts, most of the direct surface level commentary is on her relationships with Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor. While this is the surface level satire, there is also commentary on religion, wealth gaps, and lifestyles between the rich of society and the bottom class. While the social commentary exists under the surface, it is important to look at how Cunegonde talks about her relationships in order to arrive at any sort of conclusions regarding social class.
Cunegonde does not ever go into great detail as to how she feels about specific admirers because in terms of the point she is making, it does not really matter who she is talking about. She even says that “[her] virtue had remained unstained/Until [her] maiden hand was gained/By some Grand Duke or other” Later on, she says that “Harsh necessity/Brought [her] to this gilded cage” (Bernstein). Cunegonde feels trapped in these relationships, which is an interesting thought when looking at some other writings on Candide. In a paper by Brynn H. Scozzari, he says “we learn that Cunegonde has become a high-society prostitute” when discussing the lyrical content of “Glitter and be Gay” (Scozzari). This sums up one of two beliefs about what Cunegonde is saying in “Glitter and be Gay”. The other thought is that she is taking on these suitors in order to regain standing in society, and feels shame for how she is reclaiming power, but feels that the ends justify the means, as shown in the upbeat sections of the song. In Westphalia, Cunegonde was the daughter of a Baron, someone with merit, but in France, she is nothing but a pretty face. The other argument of Cunegonde being a prostitute seems to ring truer in other adaptations of the original story than the performance by University of Michigan School of Music, Theater, and Dance. In a paper comparing musical elements in different adaptations of Candide, author Leanne Pettit notes that before “Glitter and be Gay” was performed in the 1956 adaptation, “the Old Lady is trying to convince Cunegonde to visit with the Marquis and the Sultan, but Cunegonde can only weep” (Pettit). This goes to show that Cunegonde’s feelings on her situation are changed constantly from adaptation to adaptation. The one thing that does remain constant to her character, even if the context of the relationships is changing, is “Glitter and be Gay”.
Bernstein’s song, “Glitter and be Gay”, touches on many different topics, in both serious manners and satirically. One of these subjects is how the wealthy function in society. The main woe of Cunegonde derives from the fact that money seems to lead straight to power. In a society ruled by Catholics, Don Issachar should have been a nobody. Voltaire decided to make him wealthy though, playing into the stereotype of Jews loving money. In the original text, he is described as someone who “traded in Holland and Portugal, and who was mad after women” (Voltaire). He buys Cunegonde from the Bulgars to add to his collection of women but starts to grow fond of her, so he takes her to his country house to keep her hidden from other buyers. While it is not explicitly stated who gives Cunegonde her jewelry, which is mentioned throughout “Glitter and be Gay”, it is safe to assume that Don Issachar gave her quite a bit of it in an attempt to woo her. Bernstein emphasizes the vast amount of jewelry given to Cunegonde, and the absurdity of it by mentioning item after item in such a casual manner. From “Pearls and ruby rings” to “the purest diamond” to reluctantly “tak[ing] their diamond necklace”, Cunegonde seems unphased at the gifts thrown at her in an attempt to gain her affection (Bernstein). She seems to be in an almost care-free state at times in the song, this fact only being disproved by her casual notes on being in a cage or feeling shame. An article for the Vancouver Sun describes Cunegonde during the song as “finger[ing] her jewels as she waits for either the Jew or the Inquisitor” (Dykk). Cunegonde’s lackadaisical attitude to her situation as described in the quote explains everything wrong with how the wealthy are able to quench their feelings with money.
The very concept being tackled by “Glitter and be Gay” would make people of the time period Candide is set in appalled, which is part of the satirical comment being made. In a feudal system, like the one that was in place during the time of Candide, the vast majority of the population fell into the lower castes. Struggling with poverty and disease, and life in general, Cunegonde’s problems of not being sure if she wants to wallow in her sadness or accept her jewels and be happy seems trivial. Still, one of the most musically important and powerful songs of the whole opera is for this. Bernstein is making a point here. Even without giving us context on society, besides timing, it is clear to any listener the ridiculousness of Cunegonde’s thoughts. His overemphasis of the point is an incredibly effective satirical tool that gets his point across, without even giving any content as to why it needed to be satirized. At one point, Cunegonde even says “Perhaps it is ignoble to complain…/Enough, enough/Of being basely tearful!/I'll show my noble stuff/By being bright and cheerful” (Bernstein). It seems even she is self-aware as to how she sounds, in her own way. She realizes she is acting baseless, how she would perceive someone from the lowest class of society, while complaining, as she is still living in the highest classes of society being covered in jewels and a “wardrobe [a]s expensive as the devil” (Bernstein).
One of the very few pieces of satire in Candide that does not come straight from a floorboard laid down by Voltaire is “Glitter and be Gay” as an aria. Bernstein makes fun of how sophisticated operas tend to be by presenting an aria with over exaggerated divergent parts and vocal techniques. About half of the song is written in a minor key and about how melancholy Cunegonde feels, while the other half is in a major key and much more focused on high-society and shiny jewelry. An NPR interview explains this, “this parody of the bel canto opera, the lamenting and the angst involved in that. And then suddenly you turn the corner and it's – you know, it's a completely different world” (Simon & Alsop). The Vancouver Sun article from earlier goes as far as to call it the funniest aria ever composed because of its use of “hokey sobs, parlandos, glissandos, portamentos, trills, stratospheric notes attacked pianissimo, all-but-impossible articulation and timing that's half a beat behind the orchestra” (Dykk) Another article, written for the University of Massachusetts Press described some vocal runs in “Glitter and be Gay” as being “inflected with a high-pitched maniacal edge,” which is not something you hear being said about arias (Bagg & Bagg). All three of these articles, directly and indirectly, are relating “Glitter and be Gay” to the bel canto style of opera. Bel canto is a form of lyrical singing generally defined by smooth, continuous, and contiguous melody lines and an impressive vocal range. It features vocal runs and trills used as embellishments to the melody line (Tommasini). There isn’t an official definition of what a bel canto opera or aria is, it is generally just a name given to arias and operas that fit into the style. Bernstein takes all of these defining characteristics of the bel canto aria and blows them significantly out of proportion in “Glitter and be Gay”. In general, most bel canto arias peak at a high C note, “Glitter and be Gay”, on the other hand, makes it up to a high E flat, a note that would terrify most singers. The song also features an absurd quantity of vocal runs and coloraturas to the point of making a joke of the techniques used. While Bernstein’s overuse of techniques is intended as parody, it leads to incredibly impressive performances.
IV. A Director’s Take on Candide: Optimism’s “Glitter and be Gay”
Candide: Optimism was recently performed by the University of Michigan’s University Opera Theater. The performance exemplified the satire written by Bernstein expertly, as well as showcased how a director can input their own satire through interpretations of the songs and physical aspects of the show.
When performing “Glitter and be Gay”, it became apparent that Matthew Ozawa, the shows director, had taken the visual side of the number on the route of being a musical number, rather than an aria. In an operatic aria, the focus is generally on the performer, as the story takes place in the lyrical content of the songs. Candide, however, is different in this regard. Because it is an opera that has lots of characteristics of a musical, it becomes the director’s choice which path to follow. Some performances, such as Scarlett Strallen’s performance at the BBC Proms in 2015, take the path of a traditional aria, with no props and just the singer on stage (Strallen). The University Opera Theater’s version, on the other hand, choreographed the song like a number from a musical.
One of the most telling characteristics that it was being influenced by musical theatre rather than opera was the number of props used. Before diving into the specifics of “Glitter and be Gay”, it helps to look at the performance as a whole. Instead of using props during the show, the performance used chalkboards with drawings and words on them. For example, during Candide’s trip to Eldorado, chalkboards with sheep on them were used in place of props. This was probably used for both comical effect as well as practical effect, as it is much more cost efficient to draw your scenery and props than to build it. Ozawa also used these chalkboards to emphasize pieces of satire from Voltaire’s original Candide. Voltaire put absurd amounts of violence in the original novel to comment on the violent nature of human kind. Killing characters randomly and then bringing them back to life just to be killed again was his way of doing this. In the University of Michigan’s production, the chalkboards were used in place of weapons, showing words like “gun” and “sword”. This was to exaggerate the satire and make it more obvious for an audience that might not be familiar with the original text (Sussman).
Most of the show was like this, props and scenery drawn with chalk, but “Glitter and be Gay” was different. Ozawa could have very easily retained this style but made an active decision to portray this song in a different manner. As Cunegonde sang “Glitter and be Gay”, the ensemble danced around her with boxes for quite a while. They eventually opened up the boxes to reveal glitter jewelry, which Cunegonde proceeded to adorn herself with. In a song all about how the wealthy hide their pain and true feelings behind shimmering diamonds, having the audience’s eyes pulled straight to the gemstones was a clearly intentional choice. It pushed viewers think much more about why the song was more important than other ones in the show because it was an abrupt change from what they were used to seeing.
Compared to other performances of Candide: Optimism and specifically the piece “Glitter and be Gay”, the University of Michigan’s performance was quite unique. They highlighted certain parts of the show and different songs to make the satire laid out by Voltaire and expanded on by Bernstein more impactful.
V. Conclusion
It is quite a feat that Voltaire was able to write a novella which has been adapted time after time for centuries. Candide, ou l’Optimisme has gone through so many hands, it is shocking that it still has even the slightest bit of resemblance to its original form. Yet, it somehow does, and also maintains Voltaire’s original social commentary, while obviously adapting with the times to be suited to the audience it is being presented to. Voltaire’s satirical commentary on religion is still present in modern productions of Candide with Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor, characters he wrote about in 1759. Although they may sometimes be portrayed slightly differently from when he wrote about them, the comments he was trying to make on organized religion and the powerful people of society remain. While still keeping Voltaire’s classical societal critiques, Bernstein is also able to input his own, though they seem to regard music rather than social issues. Despite being written in a world vastly different from the one we live in today, Voltaire’s original version of Candide, ou l’Optimisme set the base work for a production which has remained timeless and important socially through satire which was adapted with song.