Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) brought China into contact with outside influences such as Persia and India due to pushing his armies through Central Asia, creating a pathway from China, known as the Silk Road, allowing merchants to travel and trade alongside missionaries, carrying with them copies of the holy Buddhist scriptures known as sutras. An abundance of Buddhist art was uncovered in the Magoa caves, in Dunhuang, North West China, discovered in 1910 by a Daoist monk. The surviving temples range in date from the 5th to 13th centuries, housing wall paintings and sculptures which display the evolving styles, materials, and beliefs.
Buddhism came to the Koguryo period (37BC-668AD) in the year 369, brought by a priest named Sundo. He came from the Chinese kingdoms on the Northern borders of the Korean Peninsula. After this, temples and Buddhist art flourished. The desire to promote Buddhism led to the development of moveable prints allowing for the distribution of Buddhist texts. The entire Buddhist code was carved onto more than 80,000 woodblocks, known as the "Tripitaka Koreana.” Fifteen years later, Paekche (18BC- 660AD) received Buddhism in 384, and finally Silla (57BC-668AD), who received the Buddhist teachings in 424.
Buddhism was sent into Japan by diplomatic convoys from Korea in 552 and today, Buddhism remains to be the prevailing religion. The most worshipped deity of Japan is the Amida Buddha of infinite light, even today a large number of monks in Japan are worshippers. Amida is the focus of many works, intended to show the viewer Amida’s paradise and bliss. Including an intricately detailed large hanging ink mandala, and in a formerly golden sculpture, made by the artist Jocho.
A unique characteristic of Korean art is its connection and harmony with nature reflected through the spontaneity of art through naturalism, allowing for a deep appreciation for the simple and unadorned. This led to particular forms of ceramic art, where the artists would not focus on achieving technical greatness though shape and surfaces, but instead to bring out the natural characteristics of the medium. Sculptors favored the natural material of wood.
One of the earliest Buddhist sculptures to be found in Korea, excavated in Ttuksom in 338, is a tiny, 4.9cm tall, bronze seated Buddha. He sits in the position of meditation known as dhyana mudra, with his hands placed in his lap, palms facing upwards. In Buddhist art, hand signs play an important role. They symbolise events of Siddhartha Gautama's life. The sculpture can be interpreted as a representation of the historical Buddha after he attained nirvana. Images representing this pose of mediation was widespread in the early phase of Buddhist sculpture throughout India, Central Asia, and China. Kings of the animal kingdom, proud and majestic, lions seen as the symbols of bodhisattvas, “sons of the Buddha”, beings who have attained a high level of spiritual attainment. He is sat on a rectangular platform, complete with two lions beneath him on either side, suggesting they are loyal disciples. The sculpture highlights the stylised drapery of his monastic robe falling over his chest and both shoulders. On the Buddha’s head is a prominent ushnisha, an ovular projection, a unique feature of Buddhist art. The ushnisha symbolised a crown, and the representation of the achievement of spiritual reliance as if an extension of the brain indicating his vast knowledge. Large eyes are one of the 32 Lakshanas, signs of a great man, which the sculpture possesses.
According to the prajna-paramita-sutra (Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom), the production of Buddhist images is to gain merit and to worship the Buddha. Some scholars have suggested that they were a vital medium to transmit Buddhist teachings and styles of images to one country to another. Traditionally, Korean Buddhist art is known to have been influenced heavily by Chinese and Japanese art, through its use of aesthetics, techniques, and form. However, over time developing uniquely Korean features. Images were a vital medium to transmit the Buddhist faith. One of the primary functions of these small images is thought to be used for the personal devotional image for royal, aristocratic devotees, which would have been placed on a private altar and worshipped. Not only this but they were also offered to temples for the well being of deceased family members, and simultaneously this would allow the devotee to gain merit on his behalf, shown in Korean inscriptions.
These small images have also been found within reliquaries enshrined in stone pagodas. Relics are known to be part of the Buddha himself, they are regarded as parts of the Buddhas body, and the scriptures are regarded as Dharma relics. They are the focus of worship and the Buddhas teaching, by carrying out the religious activity, the devotee could accumulate immense merit and spiritual benefits. Before this, there was an absence of anthropomorphic representations of the historical Buddha, and instead, symbols were used to refer to him or stages of his life, such as footprints, a tree, a reliquary chamber or wheel symbol. The practice of avoiding these images is known as ‘aniconism’ and was very prevalent in early Buddhist art. Images of the Buddha himself had begun in the late first and early second century.
The largest surviving Koguryo Buddhist paintings, at 114.5 x 55.6 cm, it a hanging scroll painting, in the typical Koguryo style, featuring the Water-Moon Avalokiteshvara. He is one of the most commonly depicted bodhisattvas of the period. He was able to prevent disasters and diseases and to protect travelers on their journey. He sits in a three-quarter view on a rocky outcrop surrounded by waves and mountains, where water flows from multiple springs and the landscape flourishes with flowers and trees. He sits elegantly with one leg crossed over and his left foot resting on a lotus flower, symbolising purity of the body, speech, and mind. He holds a rosary and on his left side is a willow branch in a vase, symbolising healing. Above him is a full moon, and a hare. By his feet are much smaller in scale nobles in court dress, thought to be the donors of this work, who are kneeling and bearing offerings, led by the dragon king followed by sea monsters bearing gifts. The use of precious materials used include malachite and cinnabar and depict his elegant attire and jewels, which reflects the contemporary ideal of divine splendor. He wears a delicate translucent robe with gold painted designs. These lavish representations were considered spiritual necessities at the time in Korean elite society. Paintings of the Koguryo period are recognised for the intricate details and perfect execution, from the exquisite garments made from pigments with gold adornments with patterns of white hemp leaves, and white circles filled with flower designs. A glowing halo representing his divinity surrounds his head.
The last of the three kingdoms to accept Buddhism was the Silla dynasty (57BC-668AD). A gilt bronze sculpture found in this period, dated to 539 and found in the South Kyongsang Provence, measures 16.2cm, depicting a standing Buddha surrounded by a giant golden aureole encasing his whole body. On the back is an inscription detailing the origins of the sculpture. The most important visual aspect are the hands, with a raised right hand and lowered left and palms are facing outwards in the Abhaya mudra gesture of reassurance alongside the Varada mudra of wish granting, possibly influenced by early Koguryo Buddhist images. His feet are exposed, as he stands on a pedestal decorated with large lotus petals. Thick folds of his robe fall over his body which is enveloped under the garment, projecting to the sides. He has a large ushnisha dotted with smaller hair spirals atop an elongated face and earlobes, both signs of a great man. Overall it lacks detail, from the hands and flames decorated on the aureole, but its beauty comes from its simplicity.
Each region imprinted their own identity, beliefs, features, and aesthetics on religious art, architecture, and representations of Buddhist images. Buddhism had a profound impact on art, showing how religious beliefs can profoundly influence the creative mind.