Over the span of millions of years, hominins have existed and as close relatives to the modern human. Hominins are humans and apes related to the modern human. Modern humans share almost all of our DNA with those who preceded us. The skeletal remains tell us of the similarities and differences between us. The fossils of the hominins and artifacts they have left reveal to us the behaviors and characteristics of each species. These behaviors and characteristics allow us to see the development of the hominins and what eventually led up to modern humans, Homo Sapiens.
The earliest living hominins recorded lived in Africa were noted to be “ape-like” in behavior and appearance. Some notable features were that their jaws were more pronounced outward, foreheads more swept back, and having a larger brow bone. Their teeth also had features such as sharp canines which were outward facing. Bipedalism was also beginning to develop and was identified through fossil remains. Based on the the orientation of the foramen magnum of the skull, it is suggested that some of them were bipedal and some were also quadrupedal and spent their time in the trees. Centered foramen magnum are associated with bipedal walkers while further back foramen magnum were associated with quadrupeds. Bone density also differed between the two with bipeds having denser femurs. Sahelanthropus Tchadensis is one notable species as they were the earliest hominin discovered and also the first biped. Sahelanthropus Tchadensis lived roughly seven million years ago. During that time period around six million years ago, another notable species, Artipithecus Ramidus, also resided in Africa but was suggested to both be bipedal and a tree climber. Quadrupedalism is theorized to have transitioned into bipedalism due to environmental changes. The theory suggests that bipedalism resulted from hominins attempting to look over the tall grasses of the grassy plains that they traveled into. Being taller also freed up the hands to carry items such as food. Bipedal walking also covers more ground when traveling. While the earlier hominins seemed more “ape-like”, eventually more species emerged and developed more “familiar” characteristics. One group that displayed these developments was the Australopithecus genus.
The Australopithecus genus also resided in Africa around the range of four and two million years ago. They were also noted to be developing bipedal characteristics such as the centered foramen magnum and denser femurs. While “ape-like” features were still present, more “human-like” features began to emerge. Features such as smaller canines, flatter teeth, and less-elongated craniums began to be more prominent. The Australopithecus were also the first hominins noted to use tools and hunt. Based on fossil evidence of sharp and broken animal bones, one species, the Australopithecus Africanus, is believed to have used bone tools as weapons to hunt. The tools were also possibly used to cut the flesh and bones of their prey to eat. Another species, the Australopithecus Garhi, were the first noted to be utilizing stone tools. It is suggested that they used sharp stones to split open animal bones in order to pick at the bone marrow to eat. Tool use and the change in dental structure indicated that hominins were transitioning from herbivorism to omnivorism. As time went on, tool use became a trend and the hominins began developing new behaviors and migrated to different parts of the world.
Along with and after the Australopithecus genus, the Homo and Paranthropus genus began to appear. They appeared in a greater range of areas such as Asia and Europe. While the Paranthropus retained more “ape-like” appearance and behaviors such as primarily being herbivores, the Homo genus took great strides in development such as the use and creation of fire, refinement of stone tools, shelter making, burial of the dead, and art. The Homo Habilis species was the first of the Homo genus to show evidence of stone tool use. Fossils of prey animals at Homo Habilis sites had markings in the bone that indicated use of stone tools to split open bone to harvest bone marrow. Homo Heidelbergensis was the first recognized to fully control fire and create shelters. They also hunted using spears fashioned from sharpened wood. Species such as the Homo Erectus roamed Africa and East Asia; developed advanced stone tools such as axes and knives. The tools that they created increased their survivability. Evidence from Homo Erectus sites also reveal use of fire which provided warmth and a means of food preparation for several members of a group. Another member of the Homo genus, Homo Neanderthalensis practiced hunting, art-making, shelter-making, food preparation, use of clothing, and burial of the dead. Though the rest of the Homo genus has gone extinct, the Homo Sapiens continue to live and thrive.
We, the Homo Sapiens, are considered to be the most advanced in areas such as society, tool making, and shelter making. Bigger cranial space and thinner cranial walls created more space to develop a larger brain. The larger brain is often associated with the success of the Homo Sapiens. Early Homo Sapiens created specialized and complex tools such as hooks and harpoons. They also communicated and intermingled with other Homo Sapiens groups. Homo Sapiens often traded goods with each other and developed complex forms of visual and auditory art. They also created early forms of religious iconography such as the Venus figurines. Homo Sapiens began as hunter-gatherer groups, following prey and migrating with them. This led to Homo Sapiens migrating throughout Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas. They had the widest range out of all of the hominins. The Homo Sapiens eventually settled and turned to agriculture. Through agriculture led to new diseases and concerns, food was more abundant and allowed the early Homo Sapiens to increase in population. Modern Homo Sapiens continue to live and develop their societies and technologies in order to maintain and increase the survivability that had been developed by their ancestors.
Millions of years of development led up to the modern human. Before the modern human, several hominin species lived and developed various ways to survive and create societies. As time went on, hominin groups went extinct and more rose up in their place; each one producing more societal and technological developments along with the rise of more “human-like” traits. In modern times, anthropological and archeological research allows to look back and see the development of the hominins and see what led up to us. By knowing the history of our predecessors, we can know more of what makes us human.
2. The Dozier School for boys was an institution that was open throughout the 20th century and first decade of the 21st whose intended purpose was to rehabilitate and educate troubled boys. Rather than rehabilitating and educating, the staff performed various forms of abuse upon the boys. The abuses and neglect of the staff resulted in physical and mental damage to the boys, and for some, it resulted in death. Over time, the wrongdoings that occurred at Dozier were brought into the light. The public became more concerned which gave families the strength to seek closure for the loss of their loved ones. Organizations such as the University of South Florida aided in the recovery and identification of the remains of the boys on campus by utilizing material culture of the past to aid in their search. The distinct features of items found in the past allowed the search teams to reveal more about the Dozier School for boys.
Material culture are physical objects that are used to express the culture of a specific group. Almost anything can be considered material culture if it found use by a group. At the Dozier School for boys, some objects that aided in the USF team’s search included burial hardware, toys, and clothing items. Aesthetic aspects of these items such as designs and materials used indicated specific time periods of use. The school created a unmarked cemetery called Boot Hill. Boot Hill housed the remains of more than 50 boys. In order to identify the boys, the gravesite had to be located and exhumed. After the remains were exhumed, materials such as buttons, marbles, and cloth were found. What was of great importance was the burial hardware exhumed along with the remains. The burial hardware included casket handles, hinges, nails, and plaques. The hardware had noticeable variations in design. Changes in designs indicates the aesthetic tastes of a culture at the time of an object’s creation. The search team recognized that the burial hardware could have been commercially bought and aimed to identify the hardware. The team later found old purchasing catalogs of the materials and identified the time periods in which they were sold and produced. The time periods of each burial item allowed the team to connect tragedies such as the 1914 Fire and the 1932 Flu Epidemic to certain burial sites. When paired with historical records of deaths on campus, this allowed the team to narrow down the list to identify the boys. While the Boot Hill Cemetery exhumation was one project where material culture was utilized, the material culture of architecture was primarily utilized to identify the location of the 1914 fire.
The 1914 Dormitory Fire resulted in the deaths of several students. The building was demolished after the fire and another building took it’s place nearby. The search team also wanted to identify where the actual site was in order to create a more accurate history of the institution. To do this, the team utilized technology that would would send a signal into the ground and ping the location of buried objects. The team found remnants of the foundation along with clothing items. These discoveries indicated that this was the site of the original building. Material culture of the building foundation and the clothing items allowed the team to find the actual site of the building and associate it with the time frame of the fire.
The material culture allows us to express our culture in physical form. Material culture changes as the culture itself changes. At the Dozier School for Boys, material culture of the early to mid 20th century allowed teams of anthropologists and archeologists to uncover the tragic events of the past. Though metal hardware and marbles may seem insignificant, It is of great importance in searches like those performed at the Dozier campus. The findings of the USF anthropology and archeology teams brought more evidence forward to identify the boys and bring closure to their families.
3. Culture is the traits and behaviors that certain groups display which distinguishes them from other groups. Cultural features of groups may be tangible things and actions. They can also be intangible thoughts and ideas. One feature that may distinguish a cultural group is language. Language is expressed in many ways and allows members of a culture to communicate with others. Both language and culture shape and influence each other to create system in which both intersect and connect.
Language can be any form of communication. The primary two forms are through verbal and visual communication (also known as nonverbal communication). Verbal communication is the passing of ideas or feeling through sounds such as speaking and laughing. Non-verbal communication is the passing of ideas or feelings through visual means such as written words, symbols, and body language. One feature of verbal language is paralanguages. Paralanguages lie within verbal languages and convey meaning. Tone of voice, laughing, and screaming are some forms of paralanguage. For non-non-verbal communication, body language and use of spatial area conveys meaning. For example, someone frowning and raising their chin while also coming within a few inches of you indicates that they may be angry at you. Written words and symbols read by the viewer is also a from of non-verbal communication. Modern technology has also increased non-verbal communication capabilities through the development and exchange of symbols known as emojis. Culture influences the way we communicate to each other. Certain tones of voice and facial expressions may carry different meaning within different cultures.
Methods of communication vary in each culture. For example, Americans speak to each other typically in a “regular speaking voice” but some of my family in the Philippines seem to “yell” at each other while it is actually their normal speaking voice. While it may be seen as “aggressive” to yell at someone while speaking to them in America, it is normal in some places in the world such as some islands in the Philippines.
While methods of communication vary, some cultures also integrate social concepts and constructions into their languages. For example, words and terms for genders were integrated for the five genders of the Bugis group in the South Sulawesi Island of Indonesia. Another example of culture being integrated into language was the pre-ban Caste System in India. The social hierarchy of the caste system developed words and terms for each social class. The terms Shudra (laborer) and Kshatriyas (rulers) were created to identify and refer to each caste until the outlawing of the Caste System due to it’s discriminatory language and practices (BBC).
Language and cultural links are also seen in some groups with dialects. Dialects are non-standard forms of a specific language certain groups have. In Louisiana, some groups such as the Cajuns still maintain a blend of both French and English in the Cajun English dialect. Aside from American culture, Cajun culture revolves around French traditions such as Mardi Gras and seafood meals sourced from local waterways (Cajun Country). Their culture is deeply rooted in French culture and their dialect reflects this.
The link between culture and language has been long theorized by several researchers. Two theories of language and culture include the theory of Noam Chomsky and the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. The Chomsky theory suggests that language is ingrained into individual’s minds and that languages are developed in similar ways. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language causes speakers to have a different sense of speaking and that language itself influences the individual’s ideas about the world itself. The link between language and culture falls under sociolinguistics, the study of how language and culture interact and intersect. Culture influences language, vice versa.
Regardless of the theory, it is known that culture works hand-in-hand with language to create a group of people that share a unique social structure which distinguishes them from other groups. No culture is totally the same and the languages and cultural practices they perform will ensure this. Language and culture will always intermingle with one another and will create unique life outlooks and experiences for members of any and all cultures.
4. As of the last century, race and gender have been a major ongoing social issue. Only recently in human history have we been putting the spotlight on the role of gender and race in society. Ingrained social stereotypes and ideas about gender and race have been passed down through generations and have created a divisive social atmosphere in modern society. Both gender and race are social constructs created by society in order establish differences between people with different characteristics.
Gender has been a social issue that has been gaining momentum in the last few years. Society has realized and is raising awareness that gender is a social construct. Since the beginnings of humanity, gender roles have been in place and have divided people by their biological sex. Men and women were and are commonly identified by their genitals and assigned roles in relation to it. Stereotypes suggest that men are more physical, active, and aggressive while women are more passive, caring, and sensitive. The stereotypes have been seen during the the times of the hunter-gatherers and the early agrarian periods of humanity. Women were often tasked to stay home and care for children while they also gathered food and tended to crops. Men were often assigned to physically demanding roles such as hunting. For hundreds of thousands of years, the stereotypes and roles are still in existence; Men are the “bread-winners” while women are the “home-makers”.
Gender is a social construct because while one’s sex is biological, the way one identifies oneself is at a personal level. Society has dictated that gender is based on biological sex. People from either of the biological sexes may identify or be attracted to different genders. While people belong to one gender group, society groups them with their biological sex. While modern society still relies mostly upon identification of gender through biological sex, society has made strides in blurring the gender lines in ways such as recognizing other genders and sexualities while also attempting to further equal pay and opportunity practices. Though there is a long way to go, implementing these practices allow members of society to comfortably express themselves without being persecuted or looked down upon.
Race is social issue that has been disputed for countless years. Recently, racism in society has only escalated the dispute. Race is the construct that groups people along with phenotypical features that people have. Racism is the prejudice and discrimination that other races impose on other races. Racism is also tied to racial stereotypes that serve only to create divisions in society. While people see superficial differences, most fail to see that all humans are biologically identical, regardless of appearance.
The superficial differences between people are created by polygenic traits that are passed down. Physical features such as height, skin color, and eye color are polygenic traits. Groups of people that intermix will pass down common features that eventually superficially distinguishes them from other peoples. Environmental factors such as darker skin due to increased sun exposure are also inherited features. Melanin, the chemical that influences skin color, is influenced by alleles that have adapted to the levels of sun exposure. All of the “races” are biologically identical and undergo the same biological processes as each other, such as adaptation to the environment and the passing down of polygenic traits.
Race and gender are two issues that continue to be disputed whose arguments are endless and continue to drag on. Race and gender have both been determined by the superficial appearance of an individual. Race is a social construct; we are all biologically identical and are only superficially different due to the alleles we have inherited. Gender is a social construct; gender has been determined by sex traits in society but it is not fixed and is up to the individual to determine who they are. Though society as a whole has taken steps into the right direction to blur the lines drawn by the social constructs of race and gender, there is still a long way to go. While it seems that these social constructs will never disappear, we do have greater a understanding of who we are as humans and can work towards a future in which all are equal.