‘A Critical Evaluation of Domestic Violence being regarded as a gendered crime’
Introduction
This literature review will highlight the issue of domestic violence, the impacts it has upon its victims and how domestic violence is viewed as a ‘gendered crime’ within society. This literature review will begin with a concise introduction explaining what is meant by domestic violence, before exploring how domestic violence has been associated as being a ‘gendered crime.’ This refers to women being the sole victims of domestic violence and men being the sole perpetrators of the abuse, which is a growing concern within modern society. Gender stereotypes, such as this, need to be eradicated from society to ensure equality and emphasise that men also are victims of domestic violence. Furthermore, this review will highlight the varying types of domestic violence, the impacts domestic violence has upon victims, relevant theories and inconsistencies regarding policies will be identified with the focus being directed towards Northern Ireland (NI) and United Kingdom (UK) legislation.
Literature Review
Domestic violence has become a “pervasive global issue” (Fischbach and Herbert, 1997:1161) and has ‘emerged as one of the world’s most pressing problems’ (Kimmell, 2002). The issue of domestic violence is prevalent within Northern Ireland, with the amount of reported incidents increasing year after year. From 1st July 2017 to 30th June 2018, 30,595 incidents of domestic violence were reported. When compared to the previous 12 months, an increase of 1,404 reported incidents was noticeable. This figure is the highest recorded amount of domestic violence incidents within Northern Ireland since data was first collected in 2004/5 (PSNI, 2018). The Police Service of Northern Ireland (2018) defined domestic violence as;
‘threatening, controlling, coercive behaviour, violence or abuse (psychological, virtual, physical, verbal, sexual, financial or emotional) inflicted on anyone (irrespective of age, ethnicity, religion, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation or any form of disability) by a current of former partner or family member’.
Domestic violence was only accepted as a social concern towards the end of the twentieth century, in the late 1970s (Erez, 2002). Prior to the late 1970s, domestic violence was viewed as a “normal part of marriage or intimate relationships” (Erez, 2002: 1) and that it did not require the attention from non-family members as it was a private matter (Dobash and Dobash, 1979). Traditionally women have been viewed as the sole victims of domestic violence and that the ‘most common forms of violence against women is that performed by a husband or an intimate male partner’ (WHO, 2012). Furthermore due to women being viewed as the sole victims of domestic violence, men have now been associated as the perpetrators of the abuse inflicted upon women. Walby and Allen (2004) reinforce this argument as they reiterate that females are far more likely to be victims of domestic abuse compared to males. According to the World Health Organisation (2013), around 30% of women worldwide who have been in a relationship have been abused either physically or sexually.
Causes of domestic violence
Academics such as Wermuth et al. (1981) comment that domestic violence’s root causes are linked to gender and power and that domestic violence is viewed as means of coercive control, undertaken by a male to maintain social dominance over a female. In contrast to this, research indicates that there has been growing evidence to highlight that men and women are both victims of domestic violence. Gelles (1997) suggests that domestic violence between genders is equal and in terms of inter-personal violence it has been found that a ‘substantial proportion of victims are men’ (Atmore, 2001). The majority of research available is tailored towards females being the sole victims of domestic violence, therefore this research indicates that males are the perpetrators of domestic abuse and women are the victims (Egger, 1995 and Drijber, Reijnders and Ceelen, 2012). A key concern for authorities is that domestic violence is extremely hard recognise, even more so in cases regarding male victims, as the majority of domestic abuse incidents takes place in private (Drijber, Reijnders and Ceelen, 2012). More emphasis is being put on research being tailored towards women as victims of domestic violence due to the underreporting of incidents incurred by males. Underreporting of incidents incurred by male victims is a result of stigma attached to men by society. Society views males as strong, confident and very masculine, which has led to a culture in which men have fears of embarrassment and being ridiculed if they report incidents of abuse that they have suffered (Barber, 2008). However despite the majority of men traditionally not reporting incidents of abuse, more men are now beginning to feel more comfortable coming forward to report what they have experienced. According to the Police Service of Northern Ireland (2018) only 25% of the male population of NI in 2005 came forward to report incidents of domestic violence that they had experienced compared to 2017, when the figure rose to 31%. These figures show a clearly growth in reporting of incidents by male victims and a move away from the stigma attached to males by society.
Types of domestic violence
Domestic violence can take the shape of many different types of abuse. According to the United States National Institute for Justice (2011) domestic violence can be divided into 5 categories, physical, sexual, emotional, economic and psychological abuse. Physical abuse takes form through hitting, kicking and in some cases stabbing with an object. Extreme cases of physical abuse may result in the death of an individual. Secondly psychological abuse is commonly experienced through verbal abuse and threats being made towards an individual. Furthermore individuals may experience sexual abuse in which they have been unwillingly coerced to take part in sexual activities through force or by threats. Individuals may also experience economic abuse, which refers to money and amenities being taken away from the victim by their partner leaving the abuser totally in control. Acts of domestic violence carried out by a male can be equally as brutal as acts carried out by a female as Smith et al. (2012) highlights that through research it was uncovered that 29% of men who had been a victim of domestic abuse spoke of how they subjected to ‘severe force,’ compared to 27% of women.
Impacts of domestic violence
The impacts upon men and women as a result of domestic violence do not change due to gender. Men and women suffer equally from the abuse they sustain. The abuse both men and women sustain can leave them with serious physical and mental issues for the remainder of their lives. Fischbach and Herbert (1997:1161) suggest that there is a strong connection between “domestic violence and psychiatric morbidity,” furthermore evidence gathered highlights those who have been a victim of domestic violence, regardless of gender, are more likely to suffer from poorer health than those who have not been exposed to this type of abuse (Croker et al, 2002). Victims are likely to suffer from anxiety and depression, which can lead to some individuals contemplating and committing suicide (Gilmartin, 1991). In a comparative study regarding both men and women victims of domestic violence carried out by Meltzer et al. (2009) is was uncovered that females were more likely to suffer from internalised behaviours which refers to females more commonly showing signs of anxiety and depression compared to males who were more likely to suffer from externalised behaviours such as becoming more aggressive. This study also identified that both males and females can show signs of both behaviours as a result of them suffering from domestic violence.
Theories of domestic violence
Various theories have been adopted by researches in an attempt to explain why domestic violence takes place. Firstly, Connell when identifying her gender order theory coined ‘Hegemonic Masculinity’. This theory refers to a practise undertaken by males that assures their dominant role and allows for the subordination of females within society (Connell and Messerschmidt, 2005). This theory can be used to explain why a man carries out domestic violence towards his partner. The theory arguably suggests that the man feels he has power and control over his female partner therefore shows dominance through physical, sexual or psychological abuse. Secondly, ‘Social Learning Theory’ was developed by Albert Bandura in 1963 and is now referred to as ‘Social Cognitive Theory.’ This theory argues that learning can happen simply by watching an act occur. In relevance to domestic violence, this can be applied to children, both male and female, who have grown up in a household with an abuse family member. If the child exposed to witnessing their mother/father being abused, they are more likely to see this as an acceptable behaviour, compared to a child who has not been exposed to the violence, and are likely to replicate this in later life against their own intimate partner.
Strategies to tackle domestic violence
When addressing strategies undertaken by the UK to tackle domestic violence it is important to note that traditionally England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland all have different approaches when trying to deal with domestic violence (Matczak et al., 2011). However this year the new Domestic Violence Act 2018 is to replace the existing Domestic Violence Act 1996 in which significant changes have been made. This act has been implemented in all countries within the UK to create a cohesive approach to tackle domestic violence. Theresa May (2018) has built this new bill around the knowledge that “domestic abuse affects those from all walks of life,” victims can be both young and old and also male or female. This Domestic Violence Act 2018 has been improved to remove gender stereotyping and the reinforcing of stigma attached to men and domestic violence. Previously the Home Office in November 2010, launched the strategy ‘Call to end violence against Women and Girls’ which aimed to prevent domestic violence and abuse occurring against women. However this approach was gender specific, like many strategies implemented across the UK that neglected men as being victims of domestic violence.
Within Northern Ireland a 7-year long strategy named ‘Stopping Domestic and Sexual Violence in Northern Ireland’ was launched in March 2016 (Department of Health, 2018). This strategy aims to:
‘To have a society in Northern Ireland in which domestic and sexual violence is not tolerated in any form, effective tailored preventative and responsive services are provided, all victims are supported, and perpetrators are held to account.”
This 7-year long strategy is a joint operation that is being headed by led by the Department of Justice and the Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety. This strategy is gender neutral, targeting both male and female victims of domestic violence. In order to be successful this strategy has been divided into five main categories.
Firstly, ‘Driving Change through Co-operation and Leadership.’ This category aims to encourage partnership between all organisations that are involved within the strategy and to promote consistency when dealing with domestic violence. Secondly, ‘Prevention and Early Intervention.’ To prevent domestic violence from taking place, more workshops will attempt to increase people’s knowledge of domestic violence and promote healthy partner relationships within communities. Thirdly, ‘Delivering Change through Responsive Services.’ This category aims to prevent the re-victimisation of individuals who have been a victim of domestic abuse and are still vulnerable to further abuse. Fourthly, ‘Support.’ It is understood that providing adequate support to victims of domestic violence is a priority within Northern Ireland. The support that will be made available will be diverse and will include educational and housing support. Finally, ‘Protection and Justice.’ This category will improve the protection and justice that is available to those affected by domestic violence through both criminal and civil justice. (Department of Health, 2018).
Conclusion
It is evident from the literature viewed that domestic violence is a crime that is also responsible for the discrimination of its victims. Modern society should still be attempting to further improve equality for all so that all individuals regardless of gender or otherwise can live free from harm. Unfortunately within today’s society men that have been a victim of domestic violence still do not have access to the adequate support they need due to their reluctance to report crimes that have been committed against them. As a result of this it is evident that statistics displaying victims of domestic crime are unreliable as it is mainly only females that come forwards to report incidents of domestic violence. Furthermore it is an out-dated view to suggest that men are the sole perpetrators of domestic violence which has been shown through the support available to victims and the gender specific policies that have been implemented across the UK. The imbalance in support and policies implemented by government need to be continually addressed to insure that the needs of men as victims of domestic violence will be met with no stigma attached to them.