Race and Ethnicities Journal
Racism, Xenophobia and ‘Our Land’
As an English, white 22-year-old male, who has always lived in predominantly white countries and someone who has never experienced any stigma or negative association towards physical attributes related to my ethnicity or race, I feel it is important when looking at race and ethnicity from my point of view, have to be aware of my positionality and be racially and culturally aware and conscious to avoid the ‘unforeseen and seen dangers’ that can emerge when care and attention is not paid to the racialized and cultural systems of the world (Milner, 2007:388). The way I position myself in relation to others with whom I share my ethnicity with and those who I don’t, as Stuart Hall (1990) writes, what I speak and how my perceptions are formed can never be identical to another individual because it is created through my lived experiences (1990: 222).
When I was thinking about my own personal experience when I was still a child, such as home, education, lifestyle, I tried to think of a time when I had experienced or witnessed an act of racism or discrimination. This was something I struggled to do, whether this be due to never witnessing any or because of what Davidio and Gaertner argue: that covert racism takes place because mechanisms of racialization are screened and cognitive racial maps provide legitimacy and validity to our racialized existence which often makes the racism go undetected and unnoticed (Coates, 2012:6). I asked my father whether there were any experiences that were related in some way to me and or my life while growing up. This is when he told me about when he was in the process of finalizing the purchase of our current family home, one of the lawyers involved in the process made a comment towards my dad in private asking if he “really wanted to live in that area because there are Indians and Pakistanis nearby”. I find this story especially confusing and baffling because at the time and even now there is still a low proportion of a non-white races and nationalities, let alone specifically ‘Indians and Pakistani’s’ living in the area, and certainly not enough for the area to feel like it had been over run or had lost the whiteness Krysan et al (2009) stated was found most desirable by ‘whites’ (2009:527).
My first obvious thought when being told about this was trying to understand, as another white male, where the issue was with living near, not just people of other nationalities, but ‘Indians and Pakistanis’ specifically. The man who asked the question knew nothing about the people, whether they practiced religion, followed their traditional cultural practices or whether they were just a ‘normal’ western family. What amazed me most about the statement was that the area we were moving into was an upper class neighbourhood in Jesmond, these ‘Indian and Pakistani’ neighbours were doctors and the owners of an international clothing firm. Clayton (2009) discusses how the ‘rules of national/local belonging’ maintain and rejuvenate these racisms (2009:494) and that identities formed at a national scale need to be changed, this made me question the motivations behind the racist remark, was it because of such a strong national identity that this man believed it was a bad thing to live near people of other races? Herring (2004) states that empirically skin color has been a reliable way of predicting education, occupation and income (2004:9) however these indicators, being clearly invalid in this case, were not enough to prevent the racial prejudice suggesting that the comments made were about more than the stereotypes usually assigned to certain skin colours. Hanafi (2016) discusses the evolutionary explanations that could be the cause of such divisions in the human population and within those divisions how ‘whites’ have become seen as inherently superior to those of other skin colours, with Darwin’s theory of evolution forming the back drop of this theory (2016:367). This made me reflect on the realization that in my life so far and most likely in the future I won’t have to worry about a disadvantages and negative perceptions being applied to me because of the valuation of the colour of my skin in the same way member of other races and ethnicities may because there has been a privilege granted to me without choice but purely because of my ‘heritage’ (Leonardo, 2004: 137).
When thinking about how a white middle-aged male, who had a very respectable job which paid well, living in a multicultural society that was not rife with racial divisions or conflicts it surprised me that they could still hold such old fashioned non-progressive views. The old-fashioned view on race and multi culturalism is something discussed by Jackson et al (1994) who associate this way of thinking as an eighteenth century concept, one of social constructions of specific people making up the social construction of the general category of nation based upon tangible characteristics such as physical traits (1994:29). The categorization of the families as ‘Indians and Pakistani’s’ shows the identification and racialization of them due to their skin colour. Despite not knowing their history or personal opinions of themselves and their own nationalities they were geographically racialized and assigned to India and Pakistan (Sundstrom, 2003:83-84). Hearing about a racially motivated statement that was not meant as an insult however was clearly a view point that could potentially affect the decisions of not only the gentleman who said it but also others he shares similar ‘advice’ with who may be inclined to listen to him, this got me thinking about how hearing about racism in what is a predominantly white neighbourhood goes against the ‘norm’ of looking into racism and xenophobia in the areas it is most expected such as the inner city or ‘working’ class neighbourhoods of urban areas which is something similar to what is noted by Watt (1998) who acknowledges the exploration of racism and anti-racism in mainly white areas as a counter to ‘ the hegemonic status of the inner city discourse in relation to race and space’ (1998;688). The old saying ‘A man’s home is his castle’ refers to the right to be secure in your own home, and whilst when it was first written it referred to physical violations such as searches and seizures I feel that in today’s society it can be applied to social violations, and in the case of the racist comments mentioned earlier, they are an act of social violation that has been directed towards a specific identity within a space they should be able to not have to deal with external issues. This is something I have never really appreciated knowing that I have always been able to go back to my home and feel cut off from any outside, this is an issue commented on by Hohman (2000) who acknowledges white privilege is taken for granted because it protects us from negative incidents being directed at us because of our race (Spencer, 2014).
Having read Garland & Chakraborti’s ‘Race, Space and Place’, although the settings differ somewhat with rural England being the ‘place’ discussed in the article, I feel that the same theory can be applied to my neighbourhood and the racially motivated action mentioned earlier. Although unlike Garland and Chakraborti’s examination, the feelings towards the minorities in my personal example are not from the perspective of someone who lived in the local area, it can however be argued that the same reasoning was behind the action, for example the ‘Indians and Pakistani’s’ who live there may have been seen to have changed the ‘sense of local identity’ because of a lack of ‘strong feeling of belonging’ (2006:159). Although the race or ethnicity of an individual has no effect on their sense of place of belonging this was something that was attributed to them based on them lacking Englishness and Whiteness.
Self-perception in the Societal Hierarchy
As I mentioned in the previous entry I have lived in predominantly white countries all of my life, these countries being England and the United States. Although I was only in the United States for a short time (10 months while studying) it was enough time for me to experience the effects of racism first hand. During my time, I never actually witness any acts of racism whether it be verbal abuse to someone or behind their back, physical abuse or even clearly motivated racial bias. What I did witness however was the way in which the people who I had become friends who were not white had come to adjust to the racially accepted narratives and the socially accepted racism which had been set. An example of this is when there was a group of roughly ten of us and we were all playing with water guns and the only African American in the group made the joke “watch out guys I’m a black guy with a gun”, although this was simply a joke it made me think about how although this man was the same as the rest of us in every way apart from the colour of his skin there was a perception attributed to him that he was somehow going to be more dangerous. When I reflect upon this now having done reading on the topic of race and ethnicities it has become clearer to me the difference privileges that have been formed, Hohman (2000) discusses how white privilege grants the ability to ‘never have to speak on behalf of their entire race’. There was a ‘danger’ associated to this person because of the actions of other who shared his physical attributes, this reminded me of how over the past few years whenever there has been a terror attack involving an individual with dark skin it was because of their faith and ideology being a cause which leads to other individuals sharing that faith to speak out about the atrocity and defend themselves and their beliefs however when the terror is caused by a white person, often the first and most significant reason given is their mental health and I can never recall a representative of these having to speak out and condemn the actions.
There has been significant research into the perception of hostility with black and white participants and these have found significant differences to do with race perceptions such as when shown a black face the black-danger stereotypes prime a reaction for guns more so with black participants than whites (Payne, 2011, 181). Cunningham et al (2004) found a brain function associated with fear was more activated when participants were shown a black face as opposed to a white one (2004:806). When reading about these sorts of studies it led me to reconsider my own perception of how deeply ingrained racism actually can be to the point where the brain has different reactions as a subconscious level, it also made me wonder how I have unconsciously changed my behavior because of my brains initial reactions or the way in which I have been treated differently than a black person when entering a shop or someone’s home because my skin colour didn’t fit the same danger stereotype or trigger a certain brain function.
In the United States, it is accepted by many black people that they are going to have a more punitive relationship with the criminal justice system, this colorism is also expressed however by others and it has formed a belief and discrimination that the colour of skin is the cause of a negative relationship with the justice system (Hochschild & Weaver, 2007: 643).
When reflecting upon this ‘passing joke’ it made me think more about the way in which I and millions of others across America have and still do benefit from the white privilege that is still prevalent in today’s society, whether it be conscious or not and the way in which I have benefitted without realizing, such as the upward socioeconomic mobility and the ‘goods of life available only to the more advantaged in society’ as well as greater protection of my basic rights by government officials (Zack, 2015:9). It struck me that as an international student I was more likely to be treated better and more fairly whilst in the US than an American black person, purely because I have been placed into this position near the top of the social hierarchy because of the colour of my skin (Gold, 2004: 951). These constructed skin categories are not geographically limited, they are present in the United States, South Africa (Ellison, 1992: 1671), British Columbia ( Anderson, 2010:580) and can be applied back in the UK where institutional racism is not as significant as other places such as the US but is definitely something that is present, as noted by Green et al (2000) who acknowledge the institutionalized racism in public services such as the Metropolitan Police Service and the offence they caused the black community (2000:3). One of the things I find hardest to comprehend is the effect the idea that your own society is skewed against you and in favour of others can have on a person and their psyche/mental state. Not only do they have to overcome this unfairness but they also have to deal with the psychological distress that comes with dealing with the racism (Kwate et al, 2003:450). Through all stages of my life I have always felt that I would be protected and had the best done for me by the state through processes such as the criminal justice system because I believed the society was there for me as a member of the public, however the thought it would be there for me more than others because of the colour of my skin was something I never entertained the idea of. Hartigan (2005, cited in Garner, 2007) acknowledges this as a hierarchical system that is biased towards white people who are seen as ‘normal and racially unmarked’ (2007:5). It is therefore not surprising that minorities often feel a desire for geographically proximity to each other because of the sense of security it brings as well as the ability to maintain mutual support (Askins, 2008:236-237).
This entry was challenging for me to write because it provoked me to change my perspective when looking at the society within which I have grown up in as well as the societies that I have visited. Rather than just looking at an act of racism and attributing it to being a one-off, this has helped me to increase my understanding of the institutional racism that is, as Bourne (2001) stated, inhered in the apparatuses of the state and the structures of our societies at a larger scale than just the individual and that at a geographic level it can be an inescapable issue that can follow people from their place of work, to their daily social interactions, their local community and within their homes. It also challenged me to consider how I may be facilitating or maintaining these racisms, albeit subconsciously, by not acknowledging my positionality located towards the more beneficial end of the spectrum and potentially contributing in its maintenance.
Racialisation in social groups
My final entry in this journal is one about the way in which people are described, distinguished or nicknamed. About a year ago I became friends with a few people who lived in the same student accommodation as me. After knowing them for a couple of months I got introduced to their friends from home. These new friends had nicknames such as fuzz, JP and B-Rob. When first hearing these nicknames, I didn’t give them much thought but as I got to know the people better I learned how each person got their nickname such as JP being the initials of his name and fuzz because in high school he had attempted (and failed) to grow a beard. It was however B-Rob’s nickname and the reason behind it which stuck in my head the most because his name was Robert and the B in his nickname stood for ‘black’. This wasn’t intended to be a negative, derogative or embarrassing nickname for him, in fact he refers to himself as B-Rob when introducing people and he likes it. It was just the most obvious descriptor that could be given to him based upon the norm of whiteness and its relation to what it is not (Garner, 2007:174), this ‘standard’ that has been socially created through which other races are measured (Henry & Tator, 2006:46).
I myself am white and therefore I am positioned within a race that is often considered to be invisible and unmarked with the discourse of preference reflecting only non-white races as racially marked and ‘white’ not being seen as different, with the difference itself however becoming the racially marker category (Oliver, 2001:118). Another way of phrasing this which made the most impact to the way I saw this process was “not only must the black man be black; he must be black in relation to the white man” (Fanon, Lam Markmann and Gilroy, 2008: 82-83) because it emphasizes how everything is brought into relation to whiteness and the view of it being norm or the benchmark to which others are to be compared.
Whilst I have never called or referred to anyone as ‘Black’ this or ‘Muslim’ that when I have a clear other way of identifying them such as by name, outfit etc., I have to appreciate the way in which I have contributed to maintaining this social construction. Despite being unable to recall specific examples, I am sure that in certain circumstances I will have mentioned someone’s race or ethnicity as a way of pointing out or describing them without truly realizing the implications of what I was doing. I was picking out a difference, much like I would if they had a red hair or were wearing outlandish clothes, without understanding the implications of reinforcing whiteness as this invisible race and the ‘norm’.
Whilst completing this entry and critically thinking about racism, its intended effects, motivations and implications in my opinion I feel that the act of being racist can be something which is unintentional and unconscious. This unconscious racism is present in a lot of people with power and can have a presence in job interviews, courtrooms and on the streets (Delgado & Stefancic, 2000: 642). This however makes me think about what can actually be considered racist, according to the race relations act of 1965, racism is legally defined as discriminatory treatment on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins (UK Parliament, 1965: 1615) and the nickname was not used to discriminate but only to distinguish, however, unfortunately using a racial feature. Because of this when I look at the situation and my own positionality in the context of it, does the use of it signify a ‘dominant group denial of and ignorance about the extent of past racism’? as described by Nelson, Adams and Salter (2012,213) as the Marley Hypothesis or does a social network mitigate the differences between minorities and majorities as theorized by Seidel, Polzer and Stewart (2000:1). This racialization within the social group is discussed by Delaney (2002) who acknowledges the geography of race can be a part of many aspects of life including the home and social interactions (2002:6).
Concluding Thoughts
This assessment has been very significant for me in the way in which I have viewed and positioned myself within the context of the complex issues surrounding race and ethnicities. In the past when thinking about these issues I just used to assume that because I was white and I was not racist and I would never discriminate against someone because of their beliefs or colour of their skin I was somehow disconnected from the issue and when I experienced any such as the examples previously given the unwillingness to acknowledge the practice was also an unwillingness to acknowledge the unconscious racism within (Long and McNamee, 2004:405). This new understanding of my personal positionality with regards to racism helped my understanding of the different geographic scales that racial and ethnic discrimination can take place. Such as the institutionalised, often unconscious, racism by the state or people in power that limits opportunities in the work place or the justice system or the more specifically targeted racism by small numbers aimed at individuals that can affect these people within their neighbourhoods and homes.