Comprehensive Exam Part A
Valerie Martins
The University of Central Florida
Comprehensive Exam Part A
While analyzing and examining the case study between Matt and Dr. Hoffman, there are notable problems that emerge. Matt appears to be fairly new to the instructional design domain, as he is lacking basic developmental, motivational, and learning/instructional knowledge. Matt also appears to lack self-efficacy in the instructional design field. In countless cases, Matt answers questions with "well", "I guess", and "I think". He also answers a question regarding how the structure of his course has operated with "It seems to have worked okay". He appears to be unsure of his responses and also insecure of the design of his online leadership course. The irony is that Matt is creating a course regarding educational leadership, in which basic leadership, management, and supervising skills will be taught. Subsequent is an analysis of the specific problems that were uncovered in the case study and specific ways Matt can resolve them to improve his overall course. The limitations of each theory used to uncover Matt's course issues will also be addressed.
The first problem distinguished was motivational. In the case study, Matt suggests that he facilitates student reflection and evaluation through assigning a communal reflection space that is part of the students' overall assessment. He justifies that because it is a part of the students' overall evaluation, it is motivation for them to complete this assignment. The achievement-goal approach is a technique used to understand and comprehend student motivation. A learner who uses a normative approach to learning often completes tasks or learning because they want to avoid negative consequences (Ames,1992). These learners do not seek mastery of knowledge and do not value performance goals, rather their objective is to appease social intentions. Normative-oriented learners solely want to reach their academic goals for extrinsic purposes. These learners often perform minimally in order to reach academic goals as quickly and feasible as possible. These learners may suppress any additional effort once they have reached their task goal, which typically is a positive evaluation or a passing grade. They do not find significance in continuing effort to achieve mastery (Hoffman, 2015).
How students are evaluated is one of the most essential factors affecting their motivation (Ames, 1992). By creating this involuntary reflecting space, Matt is creating an environment in which students are required to reflect on their learning and performance. These students are no longer evaluating for their individual investment but are doing so in order to meet academic obligation. They are striving to reach their goals solely for extrinsic motivations. More specifically, because of the social environment they are placed in, these learners exhibit a normative-approach orientation. Their goal is exclusively to project the perception of academic superiority to their peers and instructors, rather than to master and transfer the content itself (Hoffman, 2015). These learners will begin to develop assessments about their ability, originating from comparisons with the other students in the discussion (Hoffman, 2015). Although this could have a positive outcome if the student believes they are performing better than his or her peers, it could also have a negative effect if they believe their performance is inferior.
Matt can intervene this motivational problem by redesigning the reflection aspect of this course. In its current state, the reflection portion of the online unit is used as a way for Matt to assess and evaluate the students' successes and errors. In these reflections, students are likely to post in order to receive positive evaluations from peers and the instructor. They will be less likely to use this activity as a way to self-evaluate and reflect. Individuals feel an obligation to present a positive self-image, resulting in mendacious reflections in order to seem socially satisfactory (Hoffman, 2015). Although, social interaction is an essential aspect in the learning process, evaluating one's progress publically may display a reversal effect. Students self-confidence may be negatively impacted if they evaluate themselves in comparison with their peers. They may lose interest in the task at hand when they feel they are inferior. When individuals believe that they are unfavorable to their peers while performing a task, they may begin to impede goal attainment (Ames, 1992).
Because reflection is a vital portion of online learning, it is critical that it be included in Matt's online program. Matt can turn the reflection portion of his course into a private, teacher-student discussion that accounts for a completion grade. This will allow for the student to have the chance to self-evaluate directly with Matt. It will give him the opportunity to assess the learner's progress and also address issues that the student may have. It will also allow Matt to provide specific feedback, which will give the student a sense of collaboration with the instructor. This association can support continued course engagement and participation (Hoffman, 2015). It will also give the students a way to reflect on their progress without facing possible public scrutiny. There would also be less pressure for the student to conform to peers and standards.
Mastery orientation, specifically mastery-approach orientation, is often deemed ideal for prolonged and persistent learning. These learners are able to endure academic challenges and associate positive emotions with the overall learning process. However, research has unveiled that mastery orientation was not found to be correlated with academic achievement (Hoffman, 2015). Simply because a learner possesses these qualities, there no guarantee that they will exhibit academic successes. Normative orientation, however, is correlated with self-efficacy, one's belief that effort will lead to success or mastery (Ames, 1992) and effort investment (Hoffman, 2015). Normative-oriented learners are focused on the indicators that lead to academic success, such as grades and other qualitative measures. There is also a misconception that normative learning is linked to shallow processing strategies that are not associated with prolonged learning transfer. It is believed that these learners are simply memorizing the information for a specific assignment or academic task and then disposing of it. Normative learners, however, are able to detect precisely what it will take to reach a desired performance goal because that is their main focus (Hoffman, 2015). They, in turn, perform well because they are following instructions and guidelines in order to complete a specified task promptly. A mastery-oriented learner might spend an excessive amount of time researching or observing something because their ultimate goal is to master the subject, not just complete an assignment or task.
In the case study, Matt also discusses providing specific content to comment on and also instructing them when, where, and how to answer the questions. Because the learners are being told specifically what to do and say as part of their reflection, the learners will then be more likely to produce shallow responses, lacking detail and examples of higher-order thinking (Hoffman, 2015). When teacher's support the autonomy of their students, rather than control them toward a specific feeling or behavior, students function more positively (Reeve, 2009).
One of the greatest limitations of this theory is that it focuses on categorizing learners into specific classifications, deeming each person can only fall into a single category. Individuals are believed to adopt a single orientation exclusively. Research has been found that constitutes positive benefits of a combined normative and mastery orientation. Adopting multiple goal orientations, students can inhabit high interest in concepts while still using strategies that focus on obtaining their performance goals. This combination can result in overall progressive achievement and increased information transfer (Hoffman, 2015). Regardless of the theory in question, there must be some degree of willingness on the part of the learner if they want to improve their overall academic motivation (Hoffman, 2015).
The development of one's socioemotional well-being was the next problem uncovered in the case study between Dr. Hoffman and Matt. Throughout the case study, it appears that Matt exhibits a negative connotation with the student's abilities from the start. He refers to the students as unsophisticated, unintelligent and unable to manage their environment by their selves without "screwing it up". He begins his conversation with Dr. Hoffman destructively describing the students and their achievement level. In this case, Matt's negative beliefs that the students are reliant on this course to succeed, may lead to withdrawal or belief that they will not obtain their academic goals. Adults tend to disengage when they are unsure that their goal is attainable. An incremental part of being an instructor or a leader in an educational environment should be to support and guide students' beliefs and abilities. If an instructor illustrates a low expectation for students, they may begin to unknowingly teach students in a way that demotivates them (Hoffman, 2015). This will generate an environment in which students will be demotivated and lack self-efficacy in their ability to achieve their academic goals. Although the case study does not specifically state whether or not Matt will be teaching this course, for the purpose of this analysis, it is assumed that Matt is the designer as well as the instructor.
Beyond classroom structure, relationships and interactions also have an effect on student motivation. Many motivation models express the need for instructors to be more than just a person who possesses advanced knowledge, but rather someone who is able to generate enthusiasm about the learning content (Hoffman, 2015). A secure teacher-student relationship predicts greater knowledge, higher test scores, and greater academic motivation (C. Bergin & D. Bergin, 2009) It is essential for instructors to possess humanistic qualities such as building rapport and showing concern for the well-being of students beyond academia. Instructors are seen as knowledgeable and proficient when they express emotional support and sensitivity to their learners (Hoffman, 2015). Building relationships does not necessarily mean building friendship but instead involves creating a sense of structure and belonging within the classroom community (Hoffman, 2015). How Matt views and portrays the students, will affect the way the learners view themselves and their achievements. The perceptions of students of the assigned tasks and activities not only influence how they will approach learning, but also how they use the available time (Ames, 1992). Learners who feel as though they are part of a community with support and guidance will be more motivated to participate and cooperate within their classroom. There will be less chance of disengagement and drop out.
To resolve this problem, Matt can refocus his outlook into a more positive, opportunistic, and committed mindset (Cross & Hong, 2012). If Matt can portray this mindset through his course design, he will create a sense of community within the classroom. The success of his online course will be determined by the collective and coordinated efforts of the students. It is important that Matt create positive relationships. Instructors inspire students based on creating trust, empathy, and instilling cooperation (Hoffman, 2015). Students who have confidence in their capabilities engage in deeper processing, which in turn results in an overall better understanding of material (Mayer, 2003). This confidence can be built starting with support and encouragement from Matt.
Matt can also focus developing his course in a learner-centered environment. This means shifting from simply explaining to the students what they will cover during the course and instead give them the tools needed to learn the material (Hoffman, 2015). Matt does state that he "needed to make sure everything I thought they needed was there for them". However, this does not mean that just providing the necessary tools will guarantee successful outcomes. Matt must extend support by regularly communicating with students, giving assignment feedback, and ensuring students are feeling challenged. One of the characteristics of an online learning environment that students gravitate toward is the enhanced independence to achieve their learning goals, as opposed to a traditional teacher-centered environment (Hoffman, 2015). In an online setting, they are given the freedom to monitor their own work and progress. Because this is an attractive aspect of online learning, removing the sense of independence by calculating each students' exact response may leave students feeling uninterested or disengaged from the course. By encouraging learners to set their own learning goals, providing them with choices and resources, and emphasizing social interactions (Hoffman, 2015), Matt is allowing students to be in charge of their own learning outcomes. There is a place for both direct instruction and student-centered learning in web-based learning, the challenge is to balance them effectively (Kuhn, 2007).
Matt should establish a positive, shared vision from the very beginning of the course. By expressing his ultimate goal for the students, mastery of specific leadership skills and exploration of their perspectives and thinking, Matt will shape student satisfaction and motivation (Slavich & Zimbardo, 2012). Matt can also use the student reflection space to also encourage suggestions for the course development. Students can use this space to suggest resources or strategies that they have found personally effective that he can include. This will give students a sense of significance in that they will offer a first-hand opinion on how Matt can continue to develop his program.
Throughout exploration of web-based learning, a topic of concern for many researchers is that of the disconnect that can occur for an online instructor teaching a fully online class. Online learners and educators have agreed that online learning detaches the social learning culture that is present in traditional learning environments (Hoffman, 2015). Learners in online classrooms may begin to feel unprepared to successfully master their online course because they do not feel as though they have the proper foundation that is needed to complete tasks (Hoffman, 2015). Because building a relationship with students correlates to successful outcomes, it is imperative it transpires. In a classroom where instructors are teaching via the internet, this relationship building becomes that much more difficult because of the distance and lack of face-to-face interactions. Instilling motivation through a fully online platform becomes increasingly problematic. In this case, instructor presence must overcompensate for the inconsistent human involvement (Hoffman, 2015). Without this sense of community and collaboration, students are likely to disengage from their educational tasks and potentially lose self-confidence in their abilities.
The instructional problem exposed in the case study regarded the physical design of Matt's online course. As Matt states, he incorporated a "lots of bells and whistles". He also states that he added "lots of music and activities for them to complete". The design of this program was aimed to keep the attention of students, not to allow for ease of use or comfortability. Instruction should be designed to manage extraneous load (Mayer, 2003). Individuals are unable to divide their attention between tasks because both tasks are competing for a limited about of cognitive resources (Kieschner & van Merriëboer, 2013). Rapidly switching between media or activities can lead to poor learning results and performance because it causes a person to try and balance cognitive resources to accomplish the tasks successfully (Kieschner & van Merriëboer, 2013).
Students often have misconceptions regarding the amount of preparation and thoroughness needed to successfully master and achieve in an online platform (Hoffman, 2015). Students are choosing online learning because they believe it is "easier and takes less time" and is "more convenient" compared to a traditional face-to-face classroom (Hoffman, 2015). When students are first learning to navigate an online platform, they will have difficulty also trying to understand and comprehend new information. This might lead to the student feeling overwhelmed, which can lead to disengagement or withdrawal. This is why avoiding extraneous materials is essential.
The simplest way Matt can intervene this problem is to revisit the design of his course. Because our working memory is vulnerable to overload, it is important to avoid cognitive load by limiting the amount of activity enacted on the working memory at once. Although it is important to capture and hold the attention of the students, it is equally as important that the learner does not waste cognitive resources on extraneous processing. When tasks involve variety and diversity, they are more likely to facilitate interest in learning and mastery (Ames, 1992). This does not necessarily mean "bells and whistles". Matt also remarks that he incorporates a lot of music and activities. If there are copious amounts of extraneous materials, learners will spend much of their time and focus navigating these. When this occurs, the learner will then not have enough cognitive capacity for intrinsic and germane processing (Mayer, 2003). There will no longer be sufficient capacity to process the information itself. This, of course, can be incremental for the students who are dependent on this course to develop themselves in basic leadership. The appropriateness of the course directly correlates to engagement and retention of information (Hoffman, 2015).
Matt can begin redesigning his course by limiting the amount of information and extraneous material he presents in his course. As it is presently, Matt's students and their working memory are being bombarded by overwhelming, disorganization. The course is currently aimed at grabbing the students' attention, but not necessarily at assisting with comprehension and construction of schemas (Mayer, 2005). Matt will need to limit the amount of extraneous material he is presenting his students. He can do this by removing the "bells and whistles" and the masses of music and activities.
Cognitive load can be reduced by signaling, providing keys to the learner on how to organize the material (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Matt can still have a convivial course, but he will need to present it in a way that does not increase load. Matt can incorporate pictures and representations next to words he is introducing. He can also incorporate headers to break up text and indicate organization of the information (Mayer, 2005). If Matt's concern is grasping the learner's attention, he can still provide activities and music. It is important that when doing so, Matt does not take away from the learning content itself.
Although the solution to Matt's instructional problem may seem simple, we know from the countless research on cognitive load theory that there is no perfect solution. It could be argued that by enabling extraneous load, the designer may also stimulate germane load, which is considered the ideal scenario for a learner. If the designer provides multiple illustrations of the same idea, this may be considered repetitive or extraneous, contributing to cognitive load. Consequently, having a problem or idea presented in two different ways, can help the learner engage in deep cognitive processing (Mayer, 2005). There also is a belief that courses that are designed to simplistically can also have a negative effect. In a scenario where courses are monotonous, learners feel disengaged because they are uninterested in the simple, repetitive nature. Simplistic design may also impede on a learner's higher-order cognitive abilities (Hoffman, 2015). This realization makes it difficult for instructional designers to decipher what is beneficial or what can in fact suppress the learning process.