BRUNELLESCHI’S INNOVATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE
Kaitlyn Conrad
ARC1720 Section 3407
Word Count: 3088
Overview
Filippo Brunelleschi, born in Florence, Italy, lived from 1377 to 1446. He was an architect and engineer who contributed to Renaissance architecture of Italy. He was the first modern engineer and an exceptional problem solver. In fact, he created his most widely known work, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, with tools and machines he invented specifically for that project. In his works, he strove to be simple, clear, and precise, rather than attention-seeking and showy. Brunelleschi was much more than just an architect. He had interests in mathematics, engineering, studying ancient monuments, and even ship design.
Background of Renaissance Architecture
Because Filippo Brunelleschi’s work took place during such a significant time period, the Renaissance, it’s important to understand what the Renaissance was and what the architecture was like during that time, specifically in Italy. The Renaissance movement was a way to go forward by looking back; essentially, it was using the ancient Greek and Roman models in order to build toward the future. This period took place from about 1400 to 1550.
An essential part of being an architect during this time period was knowledge of Roman remains. While training in the arts provided knowledge of science and mathematics and was beneficial to architects, many architects of the late 1400s were fascinated with early Roman architecture. In fact, current collections of Renaissance architectural drawings include far more sketches of ancient Roman architecture than architecture that was considered contemporary during the Renaissance.
An early sixteenth-century architect is somewhat similar to today’s architects in terms of the business model. Once these architects in the 1500s were recognized in the profession, they would establish themselves by doing well on a job, which would grow their practices. The job of the architect during this time went beyond designing churches and palaces, which are what most architects of this period are recognized for. They designed buildings and monuments all around cities. For large programs, architects would focus on designing and supervising a large staff. The staff included a co-architect, someone in charge of pay and pricing, treasurers, foremen and specialists, and craftsmen in charge of specific tasks such as carpentry, masonry, ironwork, and carving.
While there were similarities such as these between Renaissance and modern day architects, there were also interesting differences. For example, unlike architects of today, past architects hardly did any detailed designing. Nearly all sketches were preliminary sketches, which were rapidly made and were only exploratory ideas. The sketches that ended up being finished can be divided into two types. The first type of drawing was made for the client, but were almost never used for production because they hardly ever included measurements or were drawn to scale. They were to show the building that was planned on being built rather than the one that would actually be built. The second type of drawing was intended to be used for construction, but has limited details such as a window or doorway. These types of drawings were intended to guide staff.
The character of Renaissance architecture can be described as having no one complete idea, but would be susceptible to change by environmental factors. Because these buildings and monuments took years to build, they would hardly ever turn out the way they were planned. The art of these finished products isn’t from the completed product, but the process of completing the monument itself, and the way architects looked for inspiration even while these projects were being built. Brunelleschi was always looking for new ideas, and had some of the most innovative ideas anyone had ever seen.
Early Years
Not much is known about Filippo Brunelleschi’s early life and career. He was the middle child of two other brothers, with a father named Ser Brunellesco di Lippo Lapi, who was a Florentine notary, and a mother named Giuliana Spini. His family was wealthy and was considered a part of the aristocracy, as they owned a row of houses.
Filippo Brunelleschi had a refined family, so his father wanted him to study scriptures and poetry, and enrolled him in one of the best humanitarian schools available. Generally, after finishing school, young men would receive apprenticeships, so it was important for these men to receive a good education in their desired field of study. While in school, Brunelleschi showed an early interest in architecture and design, as he would sometimes be caught drawing buildings and geometrical figures. His father realized that he would never be happy or successful following in a career he was not passionate about, so he allowed Brunelleschi to choose his own career.
Brunelleschi eventually enrolled in the Arte della Seta, the silk merchants’ Guild, where he had the opportunity of undertaking artistic training and studying sciences in order to become a great artist. By 1398, he was considered a master goldsmith. Generally, there were no apprenticeships available for future architects. Instead, craftsmen would master another field, such as goldsmith, painter or sculptor, and would then potentially be considered a master architect. This is because the social position of architect was great, and was associated with gentlemen and class, rather than practice.
Brunelleschi was not set on being an architect straight from the start. He initially trained as a goldsmith and sculptor, and was an apprentice to the goldsmith, Benincasa Lotti. Brunelleschi and Lotti worked in the slums of the Santa Croce quarter, which is where he learned several skills such as mounting, engraving, and embossing. He also studied motion, using wheels, gears, cogs, and weights.
In 1401, he entered a competition against six other goldsmiths and sculptors to design the bronze reliefs for the door of the Baptistery of Florence. The sculptors he competed against in the competition were Jacopo della Quercia, Niccolo d’Arezzo, Francesco Val d’Ombrino, Simone da Colle, Niccolo Lamberti, and Lorenzo Ghiberti. The requirements for the competition were that each participant model a bronze relief, of a single panel, that represented the offering up of Isaac. The participants had a year to complete their submissions.
While Brunelleschi’s trial panel depicting “The Sacrifice of Isaac” is seen as a high point in his career as a sculptor, it was ultimately Lorenzo Ghiberti who won the competition. Ghiberti’s panel was a single piece that showed his far superior technical skill and knowledge of bronze-casting, whereas Brunelleschi’s piece was made up of multiple pieces bolted to a plate. Brunelleschi’s loss may have contributed to his decision to concentrate on architecture rather than sculpture.
Although he focused most of his efforts on architecture rather than sculpting, Brunelleschi still continued to sculpt minimally. In fact, Brunelleschi and his friend, sculptor Donato di Niccolo di Betti Bradi, more famously known as Donatello, spent 10 years living in Rome beginning in the early 1400s to study the ancient ruins. Brunelleschi was inspired by his surroundings, and after seeing the Roman Empire architecture, he turned solely to architecture permanently.
Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore
While Filippo Brunelleschi lived in Rome, he was very interested in Roman engineering and the fixed proportions they used to construct Roman vaults. He was captivated by the construction of the dome of the Pantheon, and was devoted to trying to understand how it was possible that it stayed up. It was able to stand erect because it was built by pouring Roman concrete over the wooden frame.
After his stay in Rome, Brunelleschi returned to Florence to the news that the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore needed a dome. The building had started construction in 1296, one hundred and twelve years prior by Arnolfo del Cambio, and was continued by Giotto and Francesco Talenti. By 1418, the building was slow to construct, and eventually construction was stalled because there were technical problems of how to construct a vault above the enormous octagon. A council of architects had to meet to decide how to fix the shape and choir of the dome. However, the council was indecisive as how to make the dome and its lantern. Previous architects had tried to address this problem, but ideas only ended in disputes.
In 1418, the officials in charge of the cathedral announced that there would be a competition to see who would have the opportunity to construct the dome. At this time, domes were constructed using scaffolding to center and support the dome. However, timber was scarce in Tuscany and there would not be enough to build a scaffold inside the dome. Also, the recipe for concrete was lost during the fall of Rome. Because of this, Brunelleschi had to use his well-known innovation skills to come up with an entirely new way to build the dome. Within the cathedral’s octagonal drum, he planned to build an inner dome in the shape of a hemisphere. Another egg-shaped dome would be place over it, and the entire structure would be held together using nine sandstone rings.
Brunelleschi was named chief architect of creating the dome for the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in 1420. After working out a successful plan to build the dome and lantern, Brunelleschi invented several tools and machines invented specifically to carry out the construction. He also designed the lantern inside the dome.
In addition to figuring out how to build the dome, Brunelleschi had to figure out how to get the brick and sandstone materials up to the dome, which was hundreds of feet in the air. To do this, Brunelleschi invented a machine-lift with the world’s first reverse gear, which allowed a load of materials very quickly and effectively. Also, he made sure that his workers were safe and capable enough to work. Because the cathedral was so high, there was a safety net to catch workers in the event that they fell. Also, he offered lunches and watered down the wine so that workers would stay sober, and provided a watering canteen on the dome. Another idea he implemented was having a chiming clock regulate their working hours. Because of these great, innovative ideas, there were only three deaths during the construction of the dome, which lasted 16 years.
The construction of the dome for the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore was finished in 1434, and weighs 37,000 tons and uses more than 4,000,000 bricks. It is widely considered Brunelleschi’s major work. The lantern for the dome started construction soon after, in 1436, under Brunelleschi’s supervision. Brunelleschi left a model and instructions for the lantern, which stated that it be built with marble so that the dome’s top wouldn’t open. The idea was that the point of the dome would be much steadier if it had a heavier weight on it. Unfortunately, Brunelleschi died in 1446, years before the lantern was actually completed.
Brunelleschi’s Reinvention of the Linear Perspective
The linear perspective’s principles suggest that one can paint or draw by starting with a single vanishing point, in which all lines on the plane meet. This makes objects in the painting appear smaller and recede into the distance, and also contrasts with objects that look closer and don’t recede into the distance. Another principle of the linear perspective is that horizontal lines occur at eye level. The linear perspective essentially allows artists to show a three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. There were early ideas of linear perspective by the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans, however these ideas were somehow lost during the Middle Ages.
Filippo Brunelleschi’s discovery of the linear perspective can be traced back to two panel paintings he made, which are thought to have taken place sometime between 1413 to around 1425. While these paintings have been lost since then, they are widely known to be the first works to accurately portray perspective, especially the painting of the Florence Baptistery. It’s unknown how the painting was created and what exactly it looked like, but Antonio di Tuccio Manetti’s biography of Filippo Brunelleschi, “Vita di Filippo di Ser Brunelleschi,” described the painting as being viewed as a reflection in a mirror. While there is some understanding of what the painting may have looked like, how the painting was created is still unknown. One idea is that Brunelleschi conveyed perspective by using mathematical, geometrical, and measuring procedures. Other speculations are that he recorded an image reflected by a concave mirror, painted the image seen in flat mirror, or recorded a projected image.
Using this newly discovered technique of linear perspective, other artists during this time were able to craft three-dimensional objects on two-dimensional surfaces, which was a tool not seen before. Eventually, this artistic tool spread throughout the rest of Italy, and then the rest of Western Europe, and has remained a popular tool ever since.
Brunelleschi’s Other Works
Brunelleschi can also be contributed to works such as Ospedale degli Innocenti, Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze, Old Sacristy of S. Lorenzo, and many more. The Ospedale degli Innocenti was the work in which Brunelleschi earned his first architectural commission. It was a somewhat plain, but gracious building, with no fancy marble or decorative pieces. However, it had notable, 8-meter-high arches.
The San Lorenzo, also known as the Old Sacristy to differentiate it from Michelangelo’s “new” sacristy, was another well-known building designed by Brunelleschi. The rich and powerful Medici family commissioned Brunelleschi to design this building and the Basilica of San Lorenzo. This building was a Renaissance-style church that was constructed between 1421 and the 1460s, and is considered an icon of Renaissance architecture. The Old Sacristy was designed as a cube with a dome in the shape of a hemisphere. The walls show elegant decorations and structural components.
In 1429, another wealthy family, the Pazzi family, commissioned Brunelleschi to design the Pazzi Chapel, which was intended to be chapter house for monks to assemble. Work started around 1442, and was completed in 1457. To construct the building, Brunelleschi used mathematics and geometrics to create the plan and elevation. The building has a central square with a hemispheric dome. The walls show an elegant geometric pattern made with dark gray stone.
Like the Pazzi Chapel, the Santa Maria degli Angeli was also a building Brunelleschi designed with central planning. This building’s construction began in 1434, but was halted in 1437, and was left incomplete until the 1930s. The building’s design was a central octagon, and a chapel opened on each of the eight sides. There was also a 16-sided exterior around the octagon. This work was groundbreaking, as it showed a perfectly centralized structure, even more so than the Old Sacristy.
Brunelleschi designed the Church of Santo Spirito around 1428 to 1434. The building’s construction started in 1436, and continued into the 1480s, after Brunelleschi had passed. The buildings style is similar to the Santa Maria degli Angeli, as its design paid attention to the building’s weight and gravity. The Santo Spirito had dome-vaulted side aisles, with semicircle chapels opening off of them, and the eastern end was centrally planned. The church’s exterior walls were supposed to conform to the shape of the chapels, however after Brunelleschi’s death, they were constructed as a flat exterior. The building’s characteristics were considered as monumental antique architecture.
Brunelleschi’s Political Career
Brunelleschi’s family had a noteworthy relationship with the city’s elite social and political circles. His father had significant ties with one of the most powerful magistracies in Florence, and eventually Brunelleschi had broad periods of service for the city councils.
Brunelleschi was on three different councils, the Consiglio del Popolo, the Consiglio del Comune, and the Consiglio del Dugento. The first two were traditional committees that passed legislation. In order to become a law, proposals would first have to be passed by the Consiglio del Popolo, and would then be passed by the Consiglio del Comune. The Tre Maggiori would nominate citizens for seats on these two councils at least one month before the new terms started. Seats on these councils lasted four months, and citizens could not hold seats on both the Consiglio del Popolo and Consiglio del Comune at the same time.
The third council, the Consiglio del Dugento, was established in 1411 and dealt with military affairs, alliances, and any other military matters. Terms lasted six months, from April to September and October to March. Once a decision was passed by the Consiglio del Dugento, it would be passed on to the Consiglio del 131, and then on to the two previous councils mentioned, the Consiglio del Popolo and the Consiglio del Comune, which would then allow the proposal to be passed into law.
Brunelleschi’s first documented membership on a city council was in 1400, when he served on the Consiglio del Popolo from February to May. He served on the Consiglio del Comune in 1400 from September to December. He was absent from the city councils until 1405, when he was appointed to the Consiglio del Comune, and served until August. Brunelleschi also served on the advisory board for cathedral supervisors until February of 1406.
Because he was such a renowned architect, Brunelleschi was often absent from meetings, missing one while he served on the Consiglio del Popolo, as he was working on the altar for the Pistoia cathedral, and another during his term on the Consiglio del Comune. Brunelleschi was frequently absent from not only council meetings, but from Florence altogether from 1405 to 1417, which corresponds with his time spent in Rome.
Conclusion
The Renaissance welcomed the revival of classical principles, which is exactly what Brunelleschi did during his life. He used his prior knowledge of his visit to Rome to help him succeed in his construction of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, his major work, but he also used innovative thinking to build tools and machinery to aid in construction. While Brunelleschi did not live to see the completion of the lantern in the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, his body lies in the crypt in the cathedral, which seems to cement his legacy of designing the dome. In addition to this, inside the cathedral entrance reads “Both the magnificent dome of this famous church and many other devices invented by Filippo the architect, bear witness to his superb skill. Therefore, in tribute to his exceptional talents, a grateful country that will always remember buries him here in the soil below.”
Brunelleschi was much more than just an architect. He was a scholar, an engineer, a political figure, and an innovator. Today’s ideas of architecture and the linear perspective can be contributed to Brunelleschi and his intelligence. Today, we remember Filippo Brunelleschi as an extraordinary engineer and architect of the Italian Renaissance.
Bibliography
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