The 1920s, dubbed both “the Roaring Twenties” and “the Jazz Age”, was a decade of growth, a time of struggle, and a period of questioning. However, despite these labels and the popular view of this time period as one of wild progressivism, the statement that the the twenties was in reality one of the most conservative times in America’s history is extremely valid. While there were some aspects that could lead to the defining of the period as the height of liberalism, the majority of these were directly related to conservatism, and were only sparks that would not fully take off until later in the twentieth century.
Beginning with the election of Warren G. Harding and his “return to normalcy” campaign, Republicans held total political control over the nation during the twenties. All three candidates of the twenties were elected in landslide victories, demonstrating the conservative views that the majority of the country held. Republicans dominated the White House, the Supreme Court, and Congress the entire decade. Andrew Mellon served as United States Secretary of the Treasury under all three presidents, and implemented the highly successful Mellon Economic Plan, which led to a major economic boom. This plan implemented low taxes, low spending, and high tariffs, especially on imported goods, as seen in the Fordney-Mccumber Tariff of 1922, all extremely conservative economic values. Another aspect of this “return to normalcy” was an attempted return to laissez faire economics. Both Harding and Coolidge, while unable to completely undo the regulatory acts, implemented business friendly policies.
The twenties also heralded a resurgence of nativism and racism. Throughout the decade, the Ku Klux Klan reached a peak of over 6 million members, fighting against the Thirteenth Amendment and equality for African Americans. However, during the same time the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was established, and fought for social justice, specifically in the form of anti-lynching legislation. The bill made it through the House but was defeated in the Senate due to a filibuster from the Southern Democrats, and while the campaign gained some progress and support in the twenties, it would not be fully successful until later in the century. Many political figures aided the cause with their endorsement, such as Harding’s 1921 speech on civil rights, the first to publicly condemn lynching and racism as a whole. Additionally, the twenties brought the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, which, for the first time, allowed Native Americans born in the States to become citizens, and although many still faced severely limited rights, this was a massive step forward for the race as a whole. At the same time however, the United States government had adopted a post-war isolationism policy and fear of foreign entanglements, a return to the Washington-era ideals of early America. This fear was not only of political involvement with these other countries, but also of the people immigrating from them. Cases like Sacco and Vanzetti, in which two Italian men were convicted and executed for crime and murder without a fair trial, show how prejudiced society and the government were against foreigners. In the same year as his speech against racism, Harding passed the Emergency Immigration Act, which restricted the number of immigrants allowed from each country. Three years later, Coolidge further limited immigration through the Immigration Act of 1924.
During this time, society was forced to redefine American values and ideals. Modern science and technology was on the rise, with advancements like the car, the radio, and immunizations. All of these inventions contributed to the high quality of living Americans experienced in the twenties, by giving them more freedom, more connection to other people, and better health. Einstein’s Theory of Relativity emerged and quickly spread to culture and politics. This movement became known as Modernism, and the Fundamentalist school of thought developed as a reaction soon after. Modernist art and literature was extremely abstract and provocative. This provocativity extended to the rest of society, leading to the Jazz Age of parties, flappers, and freedom. The extremely unsuccessful Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol, led to an explosive rebellion of underground and bootleg drinking at the wild parties and speakeasies the decade is remembered for. This mindset of fun and freedom shepherded in a generation of progressive women with short hair and shorter skirts who, led by Zelda Fitzgerald, would become known as the famous flappers. These women drank, drove, and were openly sexual, all qualities that had never been seen before in the previously reserved and polite women of America. Jazz music, which started in the primarily African American community of Harlem, New York, during the Harlem Renaissance, added to this liberal vibe. Jazz was seen as sensual, something that the Progressives reveled in, but the Fundamentalists and Conservatives heavily criticized. These Fundamentalists were strictly Conservative Protestants who believed in literal translations of the bible. They looked down on the over-the-top liberalism and despised modern science, constantly fighting to legally combat it. One of the largest supporters for the Fundamentalist movement was William Jennings Bryan, a lawyer and three time presidential nominee. He spoke out against Darwinism and Relativity, specifically during the Scopes Trial, the fight between Bryan and Scopes, a school teacher who wanted to teach evolution in public schools. The trial quickly became public, an example for the fundamentalism vs. modernism struggle. Although Bryan’s speeches during the trial demonstrated that he had very little understanding of what he was fighting for and against, Scopes was declared guilty, proving that although America had progressed enough for a modernist to have a fighting chance, fundamentalism and conservatism still prevailed. Another large component of 1920s society was the women’s suffrage movement. Although suffrage had started in the late nineteenth century, it reached it peak during the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in August of 1920. However, this triumph in the fight for equality doesn’t necessarily demonstrate the success of the progressive movement as a whole. The primary reason for women being given the right to vote was due to the fact that they were the main advocates for prohibition, an amendment that the government was struggling to enforce, and traditional religion, which politicians hoped would make the government more moral. If given the right to vote, the majority of women would lobby to keep alcohol out of America through organizations such as the WCTU, or Women’s Christian Temperance Union. Conservatives saw awarding women votes a way to help their own agenda, and in this way, a movement that is seen is the epitome of Progressivism played a critical role in the rise of Conservatism.
America in the 1920s was locked in a constant push and pull between conservative and liberal laws, morals, and ideas. For the most part, Conservatism managed to win these struggles. Although there were some aspects of the decade that are viewed as extremely liberal for the time, the majority of these are social aspects, and contain underlying Conservative motives. Politically and economically, the nation remained under the Conservative reign until October of 1929, when it rapidly plummeted from its’ success and plunged into The Great Depression that would wreak havoc for the next ten years.