Literature Review
Jennifer Nebel, Bethany Miller, and Julie Dombai
Olivet Nazarene University
Methods Education Research
EDUC 779W – 238
Professor Lynda Aills
April 2, 2018
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Your Signature: Jennifer Nebel, Bethany Miller, and Julie Dombai
Research Findings in Utilizing Graphic Organizers and Reader’s Theater as Literacy Strategies
This literature review examines the use of utilizing graphic organizers and Reader’s Theater to enhance kindergarten and first grade students’ level of comprehension and ability to retell a story in sequential order. It also considers how an at-home component can be beneficial to student learning. Research says that comprehension in reading is complex and is made up of “numerous cognitive processes and is influenced by many task-related factors” (Samuels and Farstrup, 2011, p. 186). Kucer (2014) states “recalling of facts, evaluation of events, then synthesis of ideas, making text-to-text, -self, and -world connections are all quite different tasks involving different mental processes” (p. 32). As educators, our main goal is to teach our students to read with meaning. Reading and understanding what is being read is done by making connections, asking questions, visualizing, and inferring (Tankersley, 2003, p. 93). In regards to a study done by Dooley (2011), children’s responses to stories, whether represented through play, or talk, or image, both demonstrate their understanding while also strengthening the child’s meaning making (p. 180). Reader’s Theater and graphic organizers are two strategies that can help a child make meaning of what they are reading.
Tankersley (2003) states, “the goal of teaching various strategies to students is that the students learn to use them automatically as they read” (p. 91) and “the goal of teaching students comprehension strategies is have self-regulated readers who are able to apply a repertoire of reading skills both flexibly and appropriately in each situation they encounter” (p. 115). The importance of these strategies lies in the explicit instruction and modeling of these skills with a gradual release of responsibility, scaffolding the students’ learning and use of the strategies in reading situations. In regards to the strategy of retelling, both oral and written retellings, are useful strategies, for helping boost reading comprehension (Schisler et al., 2010, p.150). Harvey and Goudvis (2000), say teachers can find out if students are using comprehension strategies and determine if they are making meaning by doing the following: listening to kids and keeping anecdotal notes, listening to conversations and conferring, observing expressions and body language, charting responses and conversations in group discussions, and examining and evaluating written work samples (p. 189-190). These are all things that can be practiced while trying to answer whether the use of graphic organizers and Reader’s Theater help to improve kindergarten and first grade students’ reading comprehension.
According to Willingham (2015), there is good reason to believe that reading outside of school is a good method to improving reading skills, as well as, increasing knowledge about a wide variety of topics, which can assist students with background knowledge when they encounter new materials that are related, such as newspapers or magazines (p. 107). It is a way for students to improve comprehension, and allows meaningful ways to improve this skill (Willingham, 2015). This is seen in the study done by Blanch, Duran, Valdebenito, and Flores that training parents how to be an active participant in increasing their child’s comprehension, is a great way for students to increase the comprehension in academic areas as well (Blanch, et. al., 2011).
Literature review
Graphic Organizers
In a research study done by Franciscone (2008), she explains the effectiveness of using story mapping as a supplemental tool to enhance reading comprehension in all students (p. 3). The study was conducted in a first grade, general education classroom from an inner city, Catholic K-8 elementary school. The class consisted of 19 female and 15 male students, all of which were reading at grade level. All 34 students were involved in the study. (p. 4). The author implemented a mixed methodology design using a story map rubric, weekly comprehension tests, and student interviews. A 4-point rubric assessed if students were able to demonstrate an understanding for a story’s setting, characters, problem, and solution. The student interview consisted of four close-ended questions that were used to understand the participants’ feelings of the story map. The author also used reading comprehension tests from students’ basal reader to collect additional data regarding students’ level of comprehension. The study took place over a six week period. When analyzing the data, Franciscone (2008) noted that several students demonstrated mastery according to the rubric. The interviews revealed that students agreed that they enjoyed using the story maps as they felt more engaged and had an easier time remembering story events and details. The results of her study indicate that the use of story maps might have improved reading comprehension of the students reading individual stories from their basal reader (p. 18) Though students benefited from the the use of story maps, the data also revealed that not all stories could use story map effectively (p. 18). Thus, “teachers should review stories before using story maps to make sure it is the correct tool in aiding reading comprehension” (Franciscone, 2008, p.18). During the study, the author learned that graphic organizers were an effective tool in helping students organize and break down difficult material. (p. 18)
In a research study done by Matthes (2009), she aims to discover how second grade students performing below grade level in reading may benefit from using stuffed animals and graphic organizers to aid them in retelling a story in sequential order (p. 7). The intervention took place in a self-contained second grade classroom over the course of four weeks. The authore met with all 18 students, but highlighted four focus students, three of which were English Language Learners. All four students involved were reading below grade level and struggled greatly with comprehension, specifically retelling ( p. 16). In the pre-assessment, students demonstrated mastery in predicting and previewing, but struggled with retelling, interpretation, and reflection. Students were explicitly taught the strategy of retelling with beginning, middle, and end using the graphic organizer. Students were also introduced to the idea of using stuffed animals to represent the characters from the story. In another study, Glenbert, Brown, and Levin found that by discussing the events with tangible objects, children’s comprehension increases (as cited by Matthes, 2009). After analyzing the data, Matthes (2009) noted that all four students increased their DRA levels by at least two levels. The data collected indicated that the stuffed animals and graphic organizer were used to help students organize their thoughts and did positively impact their retelling abilities. The graphic organizer allowed students to organize their thoughts by providing a visual aid with the needed vocabulary to think about the story in terms of sequenced events. “By using stuffed animals and building the foundation of relating and representing the character with the stuffed animals, students were able to use correct pronouns and the character names with more accuracy” (Matthes, 2009, p. 35). In additional to their academic growth, Matthes also explains that students’ desire to read and levels of engagement increase dramatically.
Fealy’s study (2010) later shifts the focus from comprehending and retelling fiction to informational, nonfiction texts. The author, a third grade teacher, felt her students were not familiar with the structure of informational texts, which hindered their abilities to comprehend what they were reading. Because third graders are no longer learning to read, but rather reading to learn, it becomes essential that teachers provided explicit instruction of effective reading comprehension strategies. “The purpose of this case study research was to explore students’ perceptions and strategies of explicit instruction of graphic organizers to support comprehension of informational text. An additional purpose was to investigate students’ perceptions of using graphic organizers as a comprehension strategy” (Fealy, 2010, p. 10). “This research study adds to the growing body of evidence showing the instructional benefits of graphic organizers as means to scaffold and support students’ understanding of informational texts” (Fealy, 2010, p. 46). The study took place over a six week period and included six participants randomly selected from a pool of students who had return permission slips for the study. During this time, the teacher-as-researcher provided 45 minutes of literacy lessons daily. The lessons included social studies content and focused on reading comprehension strategies, think-aloud strategies, and modeling of compare/contrast graphic organizers (p.96). Following these whole class lessons, students practiced applying these strategies independently. Data was collected through student interviews, rubrics, think-alouds, reflective journals, and work completed on the graphic organizer. Because participants in this study read informational texts with social studies content, they used compare/contrast graphic organizers to compare two concepts within the same text. The graphic organizer were used to improve comprehension by highlighting the most important information, events, and details from the text. After analyzing the data collected, the author concluded that all participants found the compare and contrast graphic organizer useful as it allowed them to better focus their attention while reading. “Across multiple data sources, students used the graphic organizers to organize their thinking, to respond to text, to activate prior knowledge, and to pick out important information” (Fealy, 2010, p. 137). Finally, the instructional strategies learned through explicit instruction, allowed students to become more knowledgeable about informational text as a genre and develop the awareness needed to employ the strategies to understand and fully comprehend informational text.
In another paper, David Moore and John Readence (1984) discuss the growing research of graphic organizers. Estes, Mills, and Barron (as cited in Moore & Readence, 1984) define the characteristics of graphic organizers as the visual and verbal representation of the key vocabulary of learning task in relation to more inclusive or subsumming vocabulary concepts that have previously been learned by the student (Moore & Readence, 1984, p. 11). In 1978, Smith reported that the results of his study failed to show that the strategies does facilitate learning. However, Smith’s study only reviewed studies where graphic organizers were used as teacher-directed, pre-reading activities. (p. 11) This original study focused around systematic, objective, data-based review procedures, which contain limitations. Another reason for Moore and Readence’s study was to update or replace previous research findings that have “fallen behind the research front.” (p. 11). Ultimately, the authors hoped to answer the following question: What does research evidence reveal about the effect of graphic organizers on learning from a text? (p. 12) Current Index to Journal in Education, Dissertation Abstracts International, and the Educational Resources Information Center database were used to identify research reports. Effect sizes were gathered from the study statistics and used to group the research based on preset study variables. Means and standard errors were also compared. “There were 23 graphic organizer studies included in this review and 161 effect sizes were computed…learners treated with graphic organizers outperformed learners in a control-group situations by about two-tenths of a standard deviation. These findings reveal that graphic organizers generally produce only a small effect on learning from text, but those effects can be expected to vary rather widely” (Moore & Readence, 1984, p. 13). Qualitative analysis of the studies’ discussions of results and conclusions highlighted the following three themes: teacher preparation, the graphic organizers dynamics, and the instructional context of the graphic organizer interventions. The authors reached one tentative conclusion that differed from previous findings. “That is, graphic post organizers seem to produce greater effects than graphic advance organizers. The key to this benefit seems to be student involvement, although this conclusion is offered cautiously” (Moore & Readence, 1984, p. 15). Like analysis conducted in the past, this analysis show that graphic organizers enhance vocabulary knowledge more so than overall comprehension. In summary, this paper worked to summaries what research evidence reveals about the effectiveness of graphic organizers. Using both quantitative and qualitative procedures, the results suggest that graphic organizers increase student learning when they follow the content presented.
Franciscone (2008) and Matthes (2009) both sought to answer questions regarding the use of graphic organizers and their effect on comprehension development and ability to retell. Both researchers focused on the elementary level. Franciscone explored the use of a specific graphic organizer- story maps. In her study, she worked alongside first grade students and evaluated their abilities to retell stories including information from the beginning, middle, and end. Using a rubric and comprehension tests, Franciscone assessed students’ level of comprehension in written form. Though Matthes also worked with primary students with a similar focus, her study was quite different. Matthes included the use of stuffed animals and the first, next, then, last graphic organizers to aid comprehension and retelling. The stuffed animals were used to represent story characters while the graphic organizers were used to support students’ use of vocabulary. These factors enhance students’ oral language and the quality of their retell. Francisco and Matthes’s studies explored the procedural use of two different graphic organizers, however, their result ultimately indicated that graphic organizers can be used as means to help students gather and organization information, which in turn enhances their abilities to retell a story including events from the beginning, middle, and end as well as information regarding the story's characters, setting, problem, and solution.
Franciscone and Matthes’s studies both focused on the effectiveness of graphic organizers when used to comprehend or retell a fiction text. Fealy’s study, however, investigated the explicit instruction of graphic organizers as an informational text reading comprehension strategy. Though Franciscone and Mathes’s findings are credible, they can not be applied to a variety of texts. Story maps and graphic organizers that include if, then, next, last language are only effective when reading fictional stories that include story elements. Fealy understood that an alternative graphic organizer was essential in order to support students’ comprehension development for informational texts. Fealy implemented explicit instruction and compare and contrast graphic organizers. Like Franciscone and Matthes, Fealy found that the graphic organizers could be used to aid comprehension and retelling and that explicit instruction is needed employ these strategies independently.
Though the research and evidence regarding the effectiveness of graphic organizers and their influence on comprehension development continues to grow, Moore and Readence put previous research findings into question. Moore and Readence reviewed past case studies as they wondered what the research evidence revealed about the effect of graphic organizers on learning from a text. After reviewing quantitative and qualitative data, Moore and Readence concluded that graphic organizers increase student learning when they follow the content presented. This conclusion is similar to that of Fealy who also stressed that graphic organizers are most effective when used after reading a text. Though Franciscone and Matthes, explain the benefit of using graphic organizers, they did not specifically highlight if they should be utilized before, during, or after the reading process.
As the research relates to our project, we are looking to implement a variety of graphic organizers and investigate which can be used to effectively to aid comprehension development and students’ abilities to retell. As the results indicate, some graphic organizers may be more useful than others based on the genre of the text being utilized. In our study we may explore this idea further by providing specific graphic organizers to be used with both a fictional and informational text. The research gathered may also influence when students are encouraged to utilize the graphic organizers. Fealy and Moore and Readence stressed the importance of utilizing graphic organizers following the presentation of content. Other research, however, make no such claims. Finally, the research relates to our project as we will need to consider the amount of explicit instruction provided to the study before and during the intervention as this was a point all four of the studies explored.
Reader’s Theater
The purpose of research done by Moore in 2011 was to show improvement in comprehension in second grade students who were struggling readers by using Reader’s Theater as a reading strategy. Reader’s Theater (RT) is a three to four-day model, taught between 10-15 minutes each day and includes a script that is reread each day (p. 8). It begins with the teacher choosing a script based on the reading levels of students, then modeling how the script should be read, using emotions and expressions, and allowing for the students to practice reading the script based on the teacher model. The next step of RT is rereading the script and using echo reading and explicit instruction so students know exactly what is expected of them when reading the script aloud. It is important to note that this step is also vital in helping students develop fluency. In the last step, the teacher assigns parts from the script to specific students based on their abilities and the script is performed in front of an audience (Moore, 2011). In an article written by Killeen (2014), RT is compared with the chorale reading one can remember participating in as a child and how it “empowers children to develop their own voices and interactions, with the story and with others” (p. 59).
Those participating in this study by Moore (2011) included nine students, two first graders, four second graders, and three third graders in a self-contained classroom, all being diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), having average intelligence, but struggling with reading and comprehension (p. 11). The author worked with these students for 45 minutes during their guided reading period on Monday through Thursday, for six weeks (p. 11-15) and used observation checklists, comprehension assessments, and student interviews as assessment instruments.
Results of this study showed that by using observation checklists, students were able to answer comprehension questions with accuracy and did not need prompting. Moore (2011) said using the comprehension assessment quizzes showed that students were “answering the majority of questions correctly” (p. 21) and by administering student surveys students felt “by using music and props when performing the scripts aided in comprehension” (Moore, 2011, p. 21).
Four factors contributed to the limitations of this study. The first being many students had already been exposed to two of the three stories that were presented during the study, therefore, it was not known how much of each story the students had already been able to recall. The second limitation was due to behavior issues, remembering that all the students in this study had a diagnosis of ODD. The third limitation involved the late-in and early dismissals, due to inclement weather, which interrupted the instructional schedule of those days. Lastly, the author lists the fourth limitation was due to small number of students involved in the study, which was only four second grade students (p. 20).
The implications, after reading Moore’s study for practicing RT in the classroom, were that students were able to comprehend stories they read, with little prompting and their motivation to read increased because of their enjoyment of performing in front of others (2011, p. 21). The author also believed that using RT was also a helpful tool in motivating students to learn difficult material across all subject areas (p. 22).
In a quasi-experimental study done by Gummere (2004), in relation to RT, the purpose was to extend research already done in the positive influence of RT on oral fluency, retelling comprehension, and motivation in first graders (p.4) It is important to note that the framework of quasi-experimental study is beneficial research tool in “answering practical field-based questions and for determining whether a specific hypothesis should be further studied more rigorously, including investigation using a randomized control study” (Gummere, 2004, p. 5). However, this type of study also has limitations, particularly in regards to internal validity. The author anticipated three outcomes from this study, the first being that RT would have a positive impact on oral reading fluency. Second, the extent in which RT would have on retell comprehension, and third, whether RT would increase students’ motivation to read (p. 6).
Gummere’s study included two first grade classrooms within the same school, both comparable in student demographics and academic skills, in a suburban school setting, one which participated in RT during their guided reading time for seven weeks, and the other using only their district reading curriculum. The experimental group of Classroom A, using RT for the study, in addition to the district adopted curriculum, introduced scripts to four groups of students each week, based on their reading levels. They worked on these scripts for four days and then performed the script for their classmates at the end of the week. The other first grade classroom, Classroom B, simply continued to implement the district reading curriculum for the seven weeks, teaching reading for the same amount of time as Classroom A (p. 27). Both classrooms divided their students into reading groups based in their reading levels measured by an assessment called the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS) and was used to show a student’s instructional reading level. After the seven-week study, students were given a post-test on the same measures used in the pre-test (Gummere, 2004, p. 32).
The results of Gummere’s study showed mixed results. RT was beneficial to the first graders in oral reading fluency and retell comprehension. The author stated the most significant gains were seen in retelling comprehension and oral reading fluency in above level readers (pp. 64, 69). However, a lack of significant results occurred for the at-and below grade level readers. The information the author discusses is that this could have been due to the measurement tool not being sensitive enough to measure significant enough results and also that RT was not implemented long enough for changes to occur (p. 70). Overall, based on the statistical results, RT seemed to provide the most benefit for the above-level readers (p. 72).
Limitations to this study included a limited participant population of 39 first grade students which could have been too small to generalize the findings to a larger population. Gummere (2004) also stated that a “randomized assignment of children to conditions would have provided a more rigorous design for characterizing internal validity” (p. 73), which was mentioned earlier as a limitation in the quasi-experimental framework. Measurement issues also factored in as a limitation because the below-level readers were reading passages at their frustration level which may have confused the results. In addition to these limitations, it was also mentioned that the duration of the study may have not been enough for the students at- or below-level to gain the benefits of RT. The author simply stated seven weeks may have not been enough time to determine whether RT was an effective instructional strategy for beginning and struggling readers,
The results of this study provided support for using RT as an instructional strategy, specifically with first grade students who were already reading above grade-level. However, the results for students at- or below-level, did not show any significant gains from the RT intervention. It is important to note that after looking at observations checklists, Gummere pointed out that the at- and below-level students were just as engaged as the above-level students during the RT intervention and that the below-level readers were “particularly motivated to bring their scripts home at night to practice” (Gummere, 2004, p. 73).
Even though the number of participants in their studies were quite different (Moore used only 4 second grade students and Gummere used 39 first graders), and the framework of their studies also differed, RT did have a positive impact on retell comprehension. Additionally, in both studies, RT also helped with students’ oral reading fluency. However, one contrast of the two studies became evident when Moore found that RT had a more positive effect on reading motivation in the students than what Gummere’s study showed. Also, Moore’s study included participants with average intelligence and Gummere’s study included participants ranging from below-level to above-level academic achievement. Instruments used in these studies also differed. Moore used observation checklists, comprehension assessments such as quizzes, and performed student interviews throughout the study. Gummere used PALS, which included assessments of oral reading fluency, reading comprehension, and motivation to read, at the beginning and end of the study. In summary, in regards to using Reader’s Theater in their studies, both Moore (2011) and Gummere (2004) found this instructional literacy strategy to be beneficial in retell comprehension in first through second grade students.
At-Home Component
In an online journal article written by Blanch (2015), researchers found that family involvement in school-related activities at home is beneficial to academic achievement and motivation. This study focused around peer tutoring, family involvement, and reading comprehension strategies. It looked at how the implementation of a peer tutoring program, along with training for willing families, as well as, training in comprehension strategies for teachers to use in the classroom, would improve students’ understanding of texts read. Initial trainings would be highly structured instructions being used for a twelve-week period with 30-minute sessions happening twice a week (p. 5). A survey was also used to determine family dynamics and structure, as well as, characteristics of the whole family. They used 303 students spread over four area schools in the intermediate grades, along with their 223 family volunteers, and twelve teachers within these schools. All received training in theory around the study, and support trainings throughout the study. It was concluded that parent involvement in teaching comprehension strategies to students increased their performance when given assessments to track their level of understanding. The study did indicate that the families involved, were the families that are typically involved in other school activities, with students who tend to not struggle in academic areas. Whereas, families who students typically struggle in reading are also the families who are less involved in school related activities. Therefore, they were unable to track comprehension in these demographics.
In Willingham’s journal article, it is explained that there is a need for leisure reading to support students’ development of comprehension skills (Willingham, 2011). It states that background knowledge makes a crucial contribution to reading comprehension, and that understanding of a text is dependent upon knowledge of its subject matter (p. 107). Possessing a wide variety of knowledge on a variety of subject matter helps students when they go to read any number of texts or every day materials. The aim being that they will be able to successfully navigate many different types of reading materials, while comprehending those texts based on background knowledge they have built upon over years of literature they have covered based on their interests both in and out of academic fields, as well as, scholarly materials to gain new knowledge from. The challenge Willingham finds is that the difficulty of encouraging children to read for leisure is the biggest obstacle educators come a crossed because the interest goes down with each year of schooling (p. 108). Firstly, from a psychological standpoint, it is found that the act of reading is enjoyable for students but choosing it over other activities that they find more enjoyable is the real feat. Secondly, it is determined by how much the students think they will enjoy the act. Ways the article explains you can support students’ engagement with reading to support their comprehension at home, include decoding, knowledge acquisition at home, and positive reading attitudes.
While Blanch offered parents a more structured approach to teaching comprehension skills to their students, Willingham’s suggestions were geared more towards every-day solutions to comprehension strategies. Where Blanch was training parents on a specific method for the study, Willingham teaches us more psychological strategies for instill good reading habit in children for life-long readers. You see that they suggest parents need to model positive attitudes for reading, as well as, demonstrate reading for pleasure for children to come to value. It is also suggested that parents read to their children at a young age and speak with them regularly to incorporate a large variety of vocabulary words. The article also explains that leisure reading is a choice, and so to make it more appealing, the home-environment needs to be changed to make reading more appealing as well. Both authors suggest that parents make an effort to demonstrate a value in reading and other school-related activities, so students’ attitudes about reading remains a positive one. These researches equally found that those families who are active participants in their child’s development from an early age, where children who were more academically inclined later in their school years. Both authors stressed the importance of reading with your child, and actively engaging them in with what is going on around them.
As it relates to our project, we are looking to involve parents in developing comprehension strategies at home with students in a non-structured setting, as a way of strengthening our structured teaching of comprehension strategies with students involved in the study. This will demonstrate to students the importance of understanding what is being read and assist in the process of retelling information they have read or what was read to them. As results show from both Willingham and Blanch’s articles, the more involved parents are in students academics, the greater benefits they will see.
Conclusion
After reviewing resources surrounding the research question of “How do reading strategies improve retelling in comprehension?”, the use of graphic organizers, Reader’s Theater, and at-home strategies will be used to help improve retell comprehension in kindergarten and first grade students.
Methods
The sampling frame of the study will consist of six to ten first graders from Cherokee Elementary School in Lake Forest, IL, and two kindergarten classrooms from Washington Elementary School in Jacksonville, IL. The sample of students will be chosen systematically according to reading levels, attendance, and participants’ level of interest in the area of reading.
Pre-Assessment. To begin the study, participants will first be given a pre-assessment for baseline data. In the next part of the research process, three types of comprehension strategies will be utilized: graphic organizers, Reader’s Theater, and voluntary at-home communication with parents.
Implementation of Strategies. To assess ability to retell stories, students will explicitly be taught how to utilize graphic organizers to organize thoughts using sketches or written communications. Reader’s Theater will be implemented to increase comprehension of text being read aloud. At-home communications with parents will assist in developing understanding of a variety of background knowledge to use when encountering new materials, as well as, a positive outlook towards reading for leisure. Interactions will be recorded through anecdotal notes, teacher created comprehension assessments, pictures taken of student work, and student work artifacts. Retelling in comprehension will be assessed throughout the six-week research study, and a final post-assessment will be given at the conclusion.
Post-Assessment. The data collected at the end of the study will be compared to the baseline data gathered from before the start of the study to demonstrate the effectiveness of the strategies used in trying to answer the question of “How do reading strategies improve retelling in comprehension?”
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